REESE   LIBRARY 


CALIFORNIA 

s 


International  $tuitatt<m  Series 

EDITED    BY 

WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,  A.M.,  LL.D. 


VOLUME  XL 


ELEMENTARY   PEDAGOGY. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   BY   JOSEPH   BALDWIN,    A.  M.,   LL.  D. 


r 


VOLUME  I. 

11. 

ART  OF 

III. 

SCHOOL  MAN- 

AGEMENT.    • 

IV. 

Kirksville. 

V. 

Missouri  State 

VI. 

Normal  School. 

VII. 

I. 

VOLUME  II. 

ELEMENTARY 

II. 

PSYCHOLOGY. 

III. 

Vol.  VI,  Int.    * 

IV. 

Ed.  Ser. 

V1 

Huntsville. 

. 

Texas  State 

Normal  School. 

VI. 

.VII. 

VOLUME  III. 

I. 

PSYCHOLOGY 

* 

III. 

APPLIED  TO 

IV. 

THE  ART  OF 

v. 

TEACHING.    - 

VI. 

Vol.  XIX,  Int. 

VII. 

Ed.  Ser. 

Austin. 

University  of 

Texas. 

II. 

VOLUME  IV. 

III. 

SCHOOL  MAN- 
AGEMENT AND 
SCHOOL 
METHODS.    - 

IV. 
V. 

Vol.  XL, 
Int.  Ed.  Ser. 
Austin. 
University  of 
Texas. 

VI. 

VII. 

Educational  Instrumentalities  and  School 
Hygiene. 

School  Organization  and  Classification. 

School  Government  and  Educative  Punish- 
ments. 

Courses  of  Study  and  Programmes. 

Class  Management  and  Methods  of  Teaching. 

Examination,  Marking,  Records,  Promotion, 
and  Graduation. 

Professional  Education,  School  Supervision, 
and  Educational  Progress. 

Instinct,  Sensorium,  Sensation,  and  Atten- 
tion. 

Sense  Perception,  Self  Perception,  and  Ne- 
cessary Perception. 

Memory,  Fancy,  and  Imagination. 

Conception,  Judgment,  and  Reason. 

Egoistic  Emotions,  Altruistic  Emotions,  and 
Cosmic  Emotions. 

Will — Attention,  Choice,  and  Action. 

Physiological  Psychology  and  Education. 

Education  of  the  Perceptive  Activities. 

Education  of  the  Representative  Activities. 

Education  of  the  Reflective  Activities. 

Education  of  the  Emotional  Activities. 

Education  of  the  Will  Activities. 

The  Art  of  Teaching  and  Teaching  Methods. 

Application  of  Psychology  to  teaching  Con- 
duct Studies,  Language-Literature  Stud- 
ies, Science  Studies,  Mathematics  Studies, 
and  Art  Studies. 

Pupil  Betterment  through  Better  Educa- 
tional Conditions. 

Pupil  Betterment  through  Better  Educa- 
tional Facilities. 

Pupil  Improvement  through  Educative 
School  Government. 

Pupil  Improvement  through  Educative  Cor- 
relation of  Schools  and  School  Work. 

Pupil  Betterment  through  Educative  Class 
Management  and  Class  Methods. 

Pupil  Improvement  through  Efficient  Meth- 
ods of  teaching  the  Conduct  Studies,  the 
Language-Literature  Studies,  the  Science 
Studies,  the  Mathematics  Studies,  and  the 
Art  Studies. 

Pupil  Betterment  through  Educative  School 
Unification  and  Supervision. 


INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES. 

12mo,  cloth,  uniform  binding. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES  was  projected  for  the  pur- 
pose of  bringing  together  in  orderly  arrangement  the  best  writings,  new  and 
old,  upon  educational  subjects,  and  presenting  a  complete  course  of  reading  and 
training  for  teachers  generally.  It  is  edited  by  WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,  LL.  D., 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  who  has  contributed  for  the  difi'crent 
volumes  in  the  way  of  introduction,  analysis,  and  commentary.  The  volumes  are 
tastefully  and  substantially  bound  in  uniform  style. 

VOLUMES  NOW  READY. 

1.  THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  EDUCATION.    By  JOHANN  K.  F.  ROSENKRANZ, 

Doctor  of  Theology  and  Professor  of  Philosophy.  University  of  KOiiigsberg. 
Translated  by  ANNA  C.  BRACKETT.  Second  edition,  revised,  with  Com- 
mentary and  complete  Analysis.  $1.50. 

2.  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION.     By  F.  V.  N.  PAINTER,  A.M.,  Professor  of 

Modern  Languages  and  Literature,  Roanoke  College,  Va.    $1.50. 
8.   THE  RISE  AND  EARLY  CONSTITUTION  OF  UNIVERSITIES.    WITH 
A  SURVEY  OP  MEDLEVAL  EDUCATION.    By  S.  S.  LAURIE,  LL.  D.,  Professor 
of  the  Institutes  and  History  of  Education,  University  of  Edinburgh.    $1.50. 

4.  THE  VENTILATION  AND  WARMING  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS.    By 

GILBERT  B.  MORRISON,  Teacher  of  Physics  and  Chemistry,  Kansas  City 
High  School.  $1.00. 

5.  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MAN.     By  FRIEDRICH  FROEBEL.     Translated  and 

annotated  by  W.  N.  HAILMANN,  A.  M.,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools, 
La  Porte,  Ind.  $1.50. 

6.  ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION.     By  JOSEPH  BALD- 

WIN, A.  M.,  LL.  D.,  author  of  "  The  Art  of  School  Management1'    $1.50. 

7.  THE  SENSES  AND  THE  WILL.    (Part  I  of  "  THE  MIND  OP  THE  CHILD.") 

By  W.  PRETER,  Professor  of  Physiology  in  Jena.  Translated  by  H.  W. 
BROWN,  Teacher  in  the  State  Normal  School  at  Worcester,  Mass.  $1.50. 

8.  MEMORY :  WHAT  IT  is  AND  HOW  TO  IMPROVE  IT.  By  DAVID  KAY,  F.R.G.S., 

author  of  "Education  and  Educators,"  etc.    $1.50. 

9.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INTELLECT.     (Part  II  of  "  THE  MIND 

OP  THE  CHILD.")  By  W.  PREYER,  Professor  of  Physiology  in  Jena.  Trans- 
lated by  H.  W.  BROWN.  $1.50. 

10.  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.    A  Practical  Exposition  of  Methods  and 

Devices  in  Teaching  Geography  which  apply  the  Principles  and  Plans  of 
Ritter  and  Guyot.  By  FRANCIS  W.  PARKER,  Principal  of  the  Cook  County 
(Illinois)  Normal  School.  $1.50. 

11.  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  :  ITS  HISTORY  FROM  THE  EAR- 

LIEST SETTLEMENTS.  By  RICHARD  G.  BOONE,  A.  M.,  Professor  of  Peda- 
gogy, Indiana  University.  $1.50. 

12.  EUROPEAN  SCHOOLS  :  OR,  WHAT  I  SAW  m  THE  SCHOOLS  OP  GERMANY, 

FRANCE,  AUSTRIA,  AND  SWITZERLAND.  Bv  L.  R.  KLEMM,  Ph.  D.,  Principal 
of  the  Cincinnati  Technical  School.  Fully'illnstrated.  $2.00. 

13.  PRACTICAL   HINTS   FOR   THE   TEACHERS   OF  PUBLIC   SCHOOLS. 

By  GEORGE  HOWLAND,  Superintendent  of  the  Chicago  Public  Schools.  $1.00. 

14.  PESTALOZZI :  His  LIPE  AND  WORK.   By  ROGER  DE  GUIMPS.    Authorized 

Translation  from  the  second  French  edition,  by  J.  RUSSELL,  B.  A.  With  an 
Introduction  by  Rev.  R.  H.  QUICK,  M.  A.  $1.50. 

15.  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION.    By  J.  L.  PICKARD,  LL.  D.    $1.00. 

16.  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  EUROPE.     By  HELENS  LANGB, 

Berlin.  Translated  and  accompanied  by  comparative  statistics  by  L.  R. 
KLEMM.  $1.00. 

17.  ESSAYS   ON   EDUCATIONAL   REFORMERS.      By  ROBERT   HERBERT 

QUICK,  M.  A.,  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Only  authorized  edition  of  the 
work  as  rewritten  in  1890.  $1.50. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES.— (Continued) 

18.  A  TEXT-BOOK  IN  PSYCHOLOGY.     By  JOHANN  FBIEDKICH  HERBART. 

Translated  by  MAKGABET  K.  SMITH.    $1.00. 

19.  PSYCHOLOGY  APPLIED  TO  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING.     By  JOSEPH 

BALDWIN,  A.  M.,  LL.  D.    $1.50. 

20.  ROUSSEAU'S  EMILE  :  OB,  TBEATISE  ON  EDUCATION.    Translated  and  an- 

notated by  W.  H.  PAYNE,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Nashville.  $1.50. 

21.  THE  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN.   By  FELIX  ADLEB.    $1.50. 

22.  ENGLISH  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY 

SCHOOLS.  By  ISAAC  SHABPLESS,  LL.  D.,  President  of  Haverf ord  College. 
$1.00. 

23.  EDUCATION  FROM  A  NATIONAL  STANDPOINT.     By  ALFRED  FOUIL- 

LEE.    $1.50. 

24.  MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  CHILD.    By  W.  PRETER,  Professor 

of  Physiology  in  Jena.    Translated  by  H.  W.  BBOWN.    $1.00. 

25.  HOW  TO  STUDY  AND  TEACH  HISTORY.    By  B.  A.  HINSDALE,  Ph.  D., 

LL.  D.,  University  of  Michigan.    $1.50. 

26.  SYMBOLIC  EDUCATION  :    A  COMMENTABT  ON  FROEBEL'S    "  MOTHER 

PLAT."    By  SUSAN  E.  BLOW.    $1.50. 

27.  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING.     By  EDWARD  GABDNIER  HOWE. 

$1.50. 

28.  THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  GREEK  PEOPLE.     By  THOMAS  DAVIDSON. 

$1.50. 

29.  THE    EVOLUTION    OF   THE     MASSACHUSETTS     PUBLIC-SCHOOL 

SYSTEM.    By  G.  H.  MARTIN,  A.M.    $1.50. 

80.   PEDAGOGICS   OF  THE  KINDERGARTEN.     By  FRIEDRICH  FROEBEL. 
12mo.    $1.50. 

31.  THE  MOTTOES  AND  COMMENTARIES  OF  FRIEDRICH  FROEBEL'S 

MOTHER  PLAY.    By  SUSAN  E.  BLOW  and  HENRIETTA  R.  ELIOT.    $1.50. 

32.  THE   SONGS   AND    MUSIC    OF   FROEBEL'S    MOTHER    PLAY.      By 

SUSAN  E.  BLOW.    $1.50. 

33.  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  NUMBER,  AND  ITS  APPLICATIONS  TO  METHODS 

OP  TEACHING  ARITHMETIC.  By  JAMES  A.  MCLELLAN,  A.M.,  and  JOHN 
DEWET,  Ph.  D.  $1.50. 

34.  TEACHING  THE  LANGUAGE-ARTS.     SPEECH,  READING,  COMPOSITION. 

By  B.  A.  HINSDALE,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Science  and  the  Art  of 
Teaching  in  the  University  of  Michigan.  $1.00. 

35.  THE  INTELLECTUAL  AND  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD. 

PART  I.  CONTAINING  CHAPTERS  ON  PERCEPTION,  EMOTION,  MEMORY, 
IMAGINATION,  AND  CONSCIOUSNESS.  By  GABRIEL  COMPAYRE.  Translated 
from  the  French  by  MARY  E.  WILSON,  B.  L.  Smith  College,  Member  of  the 
Graduate  Seminary  in  Child  Study,  University  of  California.  $1.50. 

36.  HERBART'S  A  B  C  OF  SENSE-PERCEPTION,  AND  INTRODUCTORY 

WORKS.  By  WILLIAM  J.  ECKOFF,  Ph.  D.,  Pd.D.,  Professor  of  Pedagogy 
in  the  University  of  Illinois;  Author  of  "Kant's  Inaugural  Dissertation." 
$1.50. 

37.  PSYCHOLOGIC    FOUNDATIONS    OF   EDUCATION.     By  WILLIAM   T. 

HARRIS,  A.  M.,  LL.  D.    $1.50. 

38.  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  ONTARIO.     By  the  Hon.  GEORGE  W.  Ross, 

LL.  D.,  Minister  of  Education  for  the  Province  of  Ontario.    $1.00. 

39.  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING.    By  JAMES  JOHONNOT. 

$1.50. 

40.  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS.    By  JOSEPH  BALD- 

WIN.    $1.50. 

OTHER  VOLUMES  IN  PREPARATION. 


New  York  :  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  Publishers,  72  Fifth  Avenue. 


INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  8 ERIE 8 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 
AND  SCHOOL  METHODS 


BY 

JOSEPH   BALDWIN,  M.  A.,  LL.  D. 

PROFESSOR  OP  PEDAGOGY  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  TEXAS 

AUTHOR  OF  ART  OF  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT,   ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY, 

AND  PSYCHOLOGY  APPLIED  TO  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING 


NEW  YORK 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 
1897 


33. 


COPYRIGHT,  1897, 
BY  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY. 


ELECTROTYPED  AND  PRINTED 
AT  THE  APPLETON  PRESS,  U.  S.  A. 


EDITOK'S  PEEFACE. 


ACCORDING  to  the  scheme  upon  which  this  series 
of  books  has  been  edited,  the  present  work  falls  under 
the  fourth  division — under  the  Art  of  Education. 
The  first  division  includes  history  of  education  ;  the 
second  division,  educational  criticism,  including  the 
writings  of  the  educational  reformers ;  the  third  di- 
vision includes  systematic  treatises  on  the  theory  of 
education ;  the  fourth,  writings  upon  the  art  of  edu- 
cation in  two  divisions — first,  works  on  instruction 
and  discipline  and  the  practical  details  of  the  school- 
room ;  second,  works  on  the  organization  and  super- 
vision of  schools. 

The  present  book  discusses :  First,  the  hygienic 
conditions  of  the  schoolroom  and  grounds,  and  the 
formation  of  healthful  habits  on  the  part  of  the  pu- 
pils. In  the  past  twenty-five  years  very  much  has 
been  done  in  the  way  of  studying  these  hygienic 
conditions.  At  first  there  were  many  investigations, 
made  especially  by  German  observers,  upon  the  ef- 
fect of  the  schoolroom  and  the  preparation  of  lessons 
upon  the  eyesight.  It  was  found  that  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  children  in  the  higher  grades  of 
school  work  had  become  near-sighted.  The  most 


vi  EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

prominent  cause  of  this  was  found  to  be  the  insuffi- 
ciently lighted  schoolroom  or  the  injudicious  study  of 
the  pupil  at  home  in  the  twilight  of  evening  or  morn- 
ing, and  also  with  insufficient  artificial  light.  The 
pupil  makes  up  for  the  lack  of  light  by  holding  his 
book  nearer  to  his  eyes  than  their  actual  focus  re- 
quires. This  after  a  time  leads  to  a  permanent  read- 
justment of  that  focus,  and  the  disease  called  myopia 
has  then  become  permanent.  The  light  should  come 
in  sufficient  quantity  upon  the  left  side  of  the  pupil, 
for  in  writing  he  will  form  the  letters  in  the  shadow 
of  his  right  hand  if  the  light  comes  from  the  right 
side.  It  is  very  important  that  the  light  shall  not 
come  from  windows  in  front  of  the  pupil,  because  the 
bright  light  occasions  a  contraction  of  the  pupils  of 
the  eyes,  while  the  attempt  to  discriminate  objects, 
such  as  the  teacher's  face,  for  instance,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  that  light,  is  rendered  difficult  and  painful, 
and  injury  through  the  eyes  results  to  the  entire 
nervous  system.  Again,  the  subject  of  the  air  of  the 
schoolroom  has  been  carefully  investigated  and  the 
relative  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air,  together 
with  other  injurious  elements,  has  been  tabulated.  It 
has  often  happened  that  nearly  as  much  injury  has 
come  to  the  pupils  through  injudicious  ventilation  as 
through  the  want  of  ventilation.  The  windows,  open 
from  the  bottom,  allow  currents  of  cold  air  to  flow  in 
upon  the  pupils,  occasioning  rheumatism  and  bad 
colds,  even  planting  the  seeds  of  consumption  and 
heart  disease. 

It  is  not  easy  to  correct  these  school  evils.     As 
already  intimated,  there  has  been  nearly  as  much  evil 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  vii 

created  by  the  remedies  as  avoided  by  them.  "  The 
fresh-air  fiend  "  is  nearly  as  great  an  evil  to  society  as 
the  fiend  of  neglect ;  but  this  is  no  apology  for  the 
existence  of  the  latter.  We  must  have  fresh  air,  and 
under  proper  conditions.  In  the  name  of  hygiene 
we  have  had  a  system  of  calisthenic  exercises,  often 
introduced  in  such  a  way  as  to  abolish  the  good  old- 
time  school  recess,  wherein  the  child  rests  not  only  his 
intellect,  but  his  will  power,  playing  or  refraining 
from  play  according  to  his  caprice.  Play  differs 
from  work  in  the  fact  that  it  depends  entirely  upon 
the  spontaneity  of  the  pupil,  while  work  requires  the 
tension  of  the  will,  and  that,  too,  in  the  line  of  activ- 
ity prescribed  by  outside  authority.  Calisthenics 
therefore  belongs  to  the  working  activity,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  a  vigorous  exercise  of  the  will  but  entirely  in 
conformity  with  the  will  of  another  person,  the  direc- 
tor of  the  exercises.  Looked  at  from  the  standpoint 
of  wise  physicians  who  have  undertaken  the  direction 
of  college  athletics,  one  shudders  at  the  hideous  viola- 
tions of  the  laws  of  health  which  were  imported  into  our 
schools  in  the  past  generation  under  the  plea  of  hygiene. 
Under  the  head  of  better  educational  facilities 
Prof.  Baldwin  calls  attention  to  the  school  appa- 
ratus and  improved  schoolhouses.  It  is  fortunate  in 
our  time  that  so  much  inventive  talent  is  expended 
upon  devices  for  facilitating  school  work.  No  subject 
is  more  practical  than  school  discipline.  The  profes- 
sionally educated  teacher  is  a  comparative  novice  in  his 
work  until  he  masters  the  art  of  school  government. 
He  should  govern  so  as  to  continually  develop  a  rational 
self-control  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  and  his  training 


viii  EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

should  result  in  the  formation  of  habits  of  self-help 
by  means  of  the  book,  and  in  skill  in  the  art  of  orig- 
inal investigation  and  verification ;  but  the  novice  in 
teaching  finds  himself  directly  opposed  by  the  pupil's 
self-will  at  the  beginning.  The  government  of  the 
school  requires  obedience  on  the  part  of  the  pupil, 
but  all  pupils  who  inherit  a  disposition  to  strong  wills 
are  reluctant  to  submit  to  the  authority  of  the  teacher. 
How  can  this  be  managed  without  leaning  too  far  in 
the  direction  of  anarchy  and  chaos  in  the  school 
which  would  result  in  tyranny  on  the  part  of  the 
older  pupils  over  the  younger  pupils  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  leaning  toward  despotism  and  mere  blind  obedi- 
ence on  the  part  of  the  pupil?  The  art  of  school 
management  in  this  important  particular  has  made 
more  progress  in  the  United  States  during  the  past 
thirty  years  than  any  other  practical  phase  of  school 
teaching.  Our  methods  of  instruction,  which  have 
striven  to  substitute  self-activity  of  the  pupil  in  the 
way  of  investigation  for  mere  memorizing  or  parrot- 
ing the  words  of  the  book  or  teacher,  have  certainly 
made  less  progress  than  the  art  of  school  discipline.  In 
the  past,  not  many  years  ago,  corporal  punishment  was 
very  frequent.  The  schools  in  the  majority  of  our 
cities  have  so  far  overcome  the  habit  of  resorting  to 
corporal  punishment  that  the  schoolroom  now  assumes 
the  atmosphere  of  a  pleasant  and  urbane  assemblage 
of  a  well-mannered  family  in  the  home.  The  air  of 
freedom  and  polite  behaviour  takes  the  place  of  the 
suppressed  and  sullen  mien  of  old  times.  The  signifi- 
cance of  this  upon  the  formation  of  the  future  citizen 
in  a  democracy  is  obvious. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  ix 

Another  rubric  almost  as  important  as  the  last  is 
that  of  class  methods  and  management.  The  igno- 
rance of  intelligent  people,  even  those  engaged  in  the 
work  of  education,  in  this  matter  is  astonishing.  The 
advantage  of  the  class  recitation  over  the  teaching  of 
the  private  tutor  is  not  well  understood.  The  class  is 
the  most  potent  of  all  the  instruments  in  the  teacher's 
hand.  He  so  manages  the  recitation  or  class  exercises 
that  each  pupil  learns  to  see  the  lesson  through  the 
minds  of  all  his  fellows,  and  he  learns  likewise  to 
criticise  the  imperfect  statements  made  by  them 
through  the  more  adequate  comprehension  of  the 
teacher.  It  must  be  remembered,  too,  that  the  de- 
fects of  view  which  one  pupil  shows  in  the  recitation 
are  not  the  same  defects  that  others  have.  Each  pu- 
pil therefore,  even  the  humblest,  is  in  some  respects 
able  to  criticise  the  work  of  his  fellows,  although  he 
in  turn  may  be  subject  to  a  more  severe  criticism  in 
regard  to  other  aspects  of  the  work  of  the  day.  The 
good  teacher  so  manages  the  recitation  that  at  its 
close  every  member  of  the  class  commences  the  prep- 
aration of  another  lesson  with  some  new  insight  into 
method  of  study.  He  is  on  the  alert  for  phases  of 
the  subject  which  he  had  neglected  the  day  before. 
To  make  the  pupil  alert  in  all  reasonable  directions  is 
the  main  object.  The  pupil  will  become  able  to  con- 
duct his  own  investigations  by  the  aid  of  the  printed 
page  and  by  the  original  study  of  the  objects  of  Na- 
ture or  art  to  which  his  topic  relates. 

The  selection  of  the  course  of  study  is  a  matter  of 
school  management  of  equal  importance  with  that  of 
the  method  of  handling  the  class  lesson.  There  are 


X  EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

certain  "  windows  of  the  soul "  which  are  closed  in 
the  mind  of  the  illiterate  person,  but  which  are  opened 
by  the  education  of  the  school.  These  windows  look 
out  upon  the  five  provinces :  (a)  Inorganic  Nature 
(arithmetic) ;  (b)  organic  Nature  (geography) ;  (c)  the 
intellect  and  the  logical  process  of  the  mind  as  re- 
vealed in  grammar  and  similar  studies ;  (d)  the  will 
power  of  man  as  manifested  in  the  forming  of  insti- 
tutions and  in  the  struggle  of  nations  one  against 
another  and  with  refractory  individuals,  the  study  of 
the  greater  self  of  man  as  found  in  social  wholes  (his- 
tory) ;  and  (e)  the  window  opened  by  literature  which 
looks  upon  the  manifestation  of  human  nature  in  its 
most  intimate  aspects ;  for  literature  reveals  the 
human  heart,  first,  as  the  seat  of  feeling;  then  the 
rise  out  of  this  dim  unconscious  realm  of  feeling  into 
that  of  clear  conviction  and  insight  into  principles ; 
then,  last,  the  realizing  of  these  ideas  in  action.  Feel- 
ings, convictions,  deeds — the  three  products  of  human 
nature — are  shown  to  the  pupil  in  the  prose  and 
poetry  of  literature.  "No  knowledge  is  so  practical  as 
that  of  human  nature,  and  no  study  plays  so  large  a 
part  in  the  forming  of  the  practical  contents  of  the 
citizen's  mind  as  his  study  of  literature. 

Glimpses  are  given  throughout  the  following  book 
of  the  best  practical  methods  of  organizing  and  super- 
vising schools,  and  in  this  respect  it  is  believed  by 
the  publishers  that  it  will  prove  of  great  service  to 
school  superintendents  and  school  boards. 

W.  T.  HARRIS. 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  January  13, 1896. 


AUTHOK'S  PEEFACE. 


SCHOOL  management  and  school  methods  are  the 
twin  arts  of  pupil  betterment.  Pupil  improvement  is 
the  central  idea.  What  is  the  best  thing  for  the  pu- 
pil ?  This  question  determines  every  school  measure. 
In  these  chapters  we  study  pupil  betterment:  1. 
Through  improved  educational  conditions.  2.  Through 
better  educational  facilities.  3.  Through  rational 
school  government,  4.  Through  educative  class 
work.  5.  Through  better  organization  and  correla- 
tion of  schools  and  school  work.  6.  Through  effi- 
cient methods  of  teaching.  7.  Through  efficient 
supervision. 

Perpetual  progress  is  the  keynote.  The  sacrifice 
of  a  lower  to  a  higher  good  is  an  incident  in  all  true 
progress.  The  good  often  stands  in  the  way  of  the 
best,  and  unthinking  conservatism  is  the  enemy  of 
progress.  The  true  teacher  is  ever  advancing  from 
the  good  to  the  better.  As  progress  comes  from  ideals 
in  advance  of  reals,  teachers  are  here  incited  to  form 
higher  and  higher  ideals,  and  earnestly  strive  to  real- 
ize them.  We  think  of  the  teacher  as  an  educational 
artist,  working  out  anew  the  problems  of  school  bet- 
terment, and  skilfully  leading  pupils  to  make  the 


xii  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

most  of  themselves.  The  purpose  is  to  assist  earnest 
independent  workers  by  the  most  helpful  facts  and 
the  most  fruitful  suggestions,  and  by  inspiring  each 
teacher  to  work  out  grandly  his  own  salvation. 

The  isolated  school  and  the  isolated  teacher  be- 
long to  the  past.  Incomparably  the  greatest  educa- 
tional reform  of  our  times  is  the  organic  grouping  of 
schools  and  the  organization  of  all  teachers  into  facul- 
ties. Each  group  of  schools  is  sui  generis,  and  each 
faculty  is  a  teaching  unit.  A  faculty  devotes  itself  to 
its  specific  problems ;  thus  a  primary  faculty  devotes 
itself  to  child  study,  primary  management,  and  pri- 
mary methods.  The  author  seeks  to  interest  all 
teachers  in  this  vital  reform  as  the  best  means  for 
promoting  all  reforms. 

Educative  school  government  is  fundamental. 
School  management  is  eminently  the  art  of  rational 
school  government.  The  modern  teacher  is  the  friend 
of  the  pupil  and  governs  up  to  self-government. 
Teachers  are  asked  to  study  anew  the  philosophy  of 
controlling  up  to  self-control,  and  thus  give  to  their 
schools  the  "  atmosphere  of  an  urbane  assemblage  of  a 
well-mannered  family."  I  believe  the  time  has  come 
when  we  may  safely  discard  extraneous  incentives,  such 
as  rewards,  per-cent  marking,  formal  examinations,  and 
corporal  punishment.  It  seems  to  me  infinitely  better 
to  secure  good  conduct  and  good  study  through  enno- 
bling motives.  The  plan  for  rational  school  govern- 
ment is  revolutionary,  but  it  accords  with  the  best  in 
modern  school  life,  and  I  deem  it  sound  in  theory  as 
well  as  eminently  practical.  It  is  with  peculiar  pleas- 
ure that  I  submit  the  chapters  on  school  government. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE.  xiii 

Conduct  culture  is  the  greatest  thing  in  education. 
In  this  book  the  conduct  studies  take  the  highest  rank, 
and  we  study  to  make  conduct  teaching  as  systematic 
and  thorough  as  the  work  in  mathematics.  All  teach- 
ers are  first  of  all  character  growers,  and  conduct  cul- 
ture stands  first.  This  is  the  educational  superlative. 
It  is  my  deepest  desire  to  intensely  interest  teachers  in 
the  art  of  promoting  good  conduct.  Systematic  con- 
duct teaching  will  do  most  for  pupil  betterment. 

The  better  organization  and  correlation  of  schools 
and  school  work  interest  all  men.  Germany  and 
France  and  England  have  made  valuable  contributions, 
but  the  best  work  has  been  done  by  our  Committee  of 
Ten,  our  Committee  of  Fifteen,  and  our  Committee  of 
Twelve.  It  gives  me  satisfaction  to  submit  this  con- 
tribution, which  has  cost  me  years  of  hard  work.  I 
feel  safe  in  commending  the  scheme  for  rural  school 
betterment.  A  plan  for  intermediate  specialization  is 
submitted  tentatively.  The  sporadic  experiments  in 
grammar-school  departmental  teaching,  predoomed  to 
failure,  and  the  decided  opposition  of  leading  educa- 
tors, have,  as  I  think,  set  back  for  a  decade  the  dial  of 
progress.  In  another  decade  or  two,  I  do  not  doubt, 
the  necessities  of  progress  will  naturally  lead  to  the 
evolution  of  our  wasteful  grammar  schools  into  effi- 
cient specialized  intermediate  schools,  and  the  objec- 
tions now  so  ably  urged  will  disappear  in  view  of  the 
immense  gains.  But  the  transformation  must  be  radi- 
cal, and  intermediate  specialization  must  be  unique. 
I  appeal  to  the  brotherhood  of  teachers :  let  true  in- 
termediate specialization  be  submitted  to  the  test  of 
scientific  experiment.  That  it  will  double  the  value 


xiv  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

of  the  grammar  school  and  incalculably  benefit  the 
teaching  profession,  seems  to  me  certain. 

The  teaching  art  is  a  boundless  realm  of  high 
endeavour.  Efficient  methods  of  teaching  the  con- 
duct studies,  the  language-literature  studies,  the  science 
studies,  the  mathematics  studies,  and  the  art  studies 
need  to  be  treated  by  masters  and  in  many  volumes. 
All  that  can  be  attempted  in  a  book  like  this  is  to 
outline  the  work  and  refer  teachers  to  some  of  the 
best  manuals  of  methods.  The  aim  is  to  help  the 
teachers  to  gain  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  entire 
school  work,  so  that  they  may  intelligently  do  their 
special  work. 

Teachers  struggling  up  alone  have  our  prof  oundest 
sympathies,  and  these  pages  have  been  written  in  view 
of  aiding  this  large  and  deserving  class.  But  in  the 
near  future  these  isolated  teachers  will  get  together 
and  will  work  far  more  profitably  in  circles  and  in 
faculties.  I  have  studied  to  make  this  pre-eminently 
a  suitable  text-book  for  classes  of  teachers.  I  have 
found  the  following  plan  of  study  most  satisfactory : 

1.  Study  an  assigned  chapter.      Each  chapter  is 
complete  in  itself,  and  is  devoted  to  a  vital  educational 
topic.     The  chapters  may  be  studied  consecutively,  or 
may  be  taken  up  in  any  determined  order. 

2.  Read  some  similar  work.    Let  each  member  of 
the  class  read  a  different  book  and  report  what  is  said 
on  the  topic  under  discussion.     Such  helpful  works  as 
White's  School  Management,  Thompson's  Philosophy 
of  School  Management,  Parker's  Concentration,  and 
Landon's  Teaching  and  Class  Management  are  sug- 
gested.    The  latest  Eeport  of  the  Commissioner  of 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE.  XV 

Education  and  the  latest  Journal  of  the  National  Edu- 
cational Association  are  considered  indispensable. 

3.  Read  an  educational  journal.     By  arranging 
to  have  each  teacher  read  a  different  journal,  the  les- 
son may  be  enriched  by  the  best  current  educational 
thought.     Our  school  journals  are  becoming  our  best 
helps  in  practical  school  work  and  in  promoting  re- 
forms. 

4.  Give  your  views.    What  each  teacher  thinks  is 
the  important  matter.     Let  each  member  of  the  circle 
study  to  make  some  original  contribution.     I  venture 
to  hope  that  these  chapters,  studied  as  suggested,  will 
prove  intensely  interesting  and  exceedingly  valuable. 
To  favour  busy  teachers,  I  have  given  the  Study  Hints, 
the  full  Alphabetical  Index,  and  the  Topical  Syllabus. 

It  gives  me  special  pleasure  to  acknowledge  my 
indebtedness,  first  of  all,  to  the  editor  of  the  Interna- 
tional Educational  Series  for  reading  the  proof  and 
for  numerous  helpful  suggestions.  I  am  especially 
indebted  to  my  student  readers  who  have  generously 
aided  me  in  these  investigations  and  in  widely  testing 
those  plans.  I  wish  to  thank  the  faculty  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Texas  and  the  faculty  of  the  Oswego  New 
York  State  Normal  School  for  valuable  assistance. 
While  claiming  for  this  work  some  originality  in  plan 
and  treatment,  I  desire  to  express  my  indebtedness  to 
many  educators,  educational  works,  and  educational 
journals  that  it  has  been  impossible  to  credit.  Once 
more  I  warmly  thank  my  fellow-teachers  and  the  press 
for  the  generous  reception  accorded  to  my  humble 
contributions  to  our  professional  literature. 

It  is  easy  to  collect  and  dilute  and  so  compile  a 


xvi  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

cheap  book  about  school  management ;  but  to  create 
a  helpful  text-book  for  progressive  teachers  is  a  pro- 
digious undertaking.  In  order  to  do  so,  one  needs  to 
live  in  the  great  school  world  and  work  near  its  throb- 
bing heart.  All  educational  problems  must  be  studied 
anew  in  the  light  of  educational  science  and  human 
experience.  Only  what  is  safe  and  best  must  be  ad- 
mitted. The  antiquated,  the  hurtful,  and  even  the 
doubtful  must  be  rejected.  A  few  vital  topics  must 
be  selected  and  so  treated  as  to  inspire  and  guide. 
Finally,  chapters  must  be  condensed  into  pages  and 
essays  into  paragraphs.  Just  here  a  personal  allusion 
seems  to  be  in  place.  I  have  endeavoured  to  put  into 
these  pages  the  results  of  four  decades  of  study  and 
teaching.  During  these  years  it  has  been  my  good 
fortune  to  work  in  rural  schools,  graded  schools,  nor- 
mal schools,  and  colleges,  and  to  assist  in  training  an 
army  of  more  than  ten  thousand  teachers.  What  I 
have  found  to  be  most  helpful  I  submit  to  the  great 

brotherhood  of  teachers. 

JOSEPH  BALDWIN. 
AUSTIN,  UNIVERSITY  OF  TEXAS, 
February  1,  1897. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

EDITOR'S  PREFACE vii 

AUTHOR'S  PREFACE  .  xi 

PART   I. 

PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  BETTER 
EDUCATIONAL   CONDITIONS. 

CHAPTER 

I.— PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    HIGHER   EDUCATIONAL 

IDEALS         3 

II. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  HELPFUL  PUPIL  STUDY  .         12 
III. — PUPIL     IMPROVEMENT     THROUGH     TEACHER     IMPROVE- 
MENT   26 

IV. — PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT    THROUGH    BETTER    SCHOOL    HY- 
GIENE   38 

PART   II. 

PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  BETTER 
EDUCATIONAL  FACILITIES. 

V. — PUPIL   IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH  EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL  EN- 
VIRONMENTS          57 

VI. — PUPIL   IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH  BETTER  SCHOOL  APPLI- 
ANCES   63 

VII. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  HELPFUL  SCHOOL  APPA- 
RATUS          69 

VIII. — PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT    THROUGH    IDEAL    SCHOOL   TEXT- 

I                      BOOKS 75 
IX. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    SUITABLE    SCHOOL    LI- 
BRARIES       81 
xvii 


PART  I. 

PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  BETTER 
EDUCATIONAL  CONDITIONS. 


CHAPTER  I.— PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  HIGHER  EDUCA- 
TIONAL IDEALS.  .-*— 
II. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  HELPFUL  PUPIL 

STUDY. 

III. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  TEACHER  IMPROVE- 
MENT. 

IV. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  BETTER  SCHOOL 
HYGIENE. 

1 


SCHOOL 
ESSENTIALS. 


The  Pupil. 
The  Teacher. 


c 
o 
tc 

81 


SCHOOL 
HELPS. 


Educative  Conditions. 

Educative  Facilities  and  Appliances. 

Educative  School  Government. 

Educative    Class    Management    and    Class 

Methods. 
Educative  School  Organization  and  Correla- 

tion. 
Educative  Methods  of  Teaching  —  The  Five 

Groups  of  Studies. 
Educative  School  Economy. 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND 
SCHOOL  METHODS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    HIGHER    EDUCATIONAL 
IDEALS. 

Progress  conies  of  Ideals  in  Advance  of  Reals. — 

School  management  and  teaching  are  the  twin  arts  of 
"  pupil  betterment."  In  school  evolution  ideals  get 
to  be  reals,  and  we  advance  as  we  transform  the  good 
into  the  better.  In  the  realm  of  educational  ideals 
there  is  a  better  and  a  best  which  ever  beckon  us  on- 
ward and  upward. 

The  School  utilizes  all  Educational  Influences. — It 
enables  the  pupil  to  make  more  of  himself  than  he 
otherwise  could.  It  plans  to  lead  the  learner  to  real- 
ize all  that  is  best  in  him.  The  school  stands  for  civi- 
lization. Wherever  we  find  a  teaching  body,  as  among 
the  ancient  Jews,  we  find  an  advancing  civilization. 
The  school  is  at  once  the  creator,  the  conservator, 
and  the  elevator  of  civilization.  The  school  stands 
for  human  progress.  It  leads  the  pupil  to  profit  by 
the  experience  of  mankind,  and  enriches  him  with  the 
accumulated  wisdom  of  the  race. 

3 


4       SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

Pupil  Improvement  is  the  Central  Idea  in  the  School 
Organism. — We  think  of  all  educative  agencies,  even 
the  teacher,  as  pupil  helps.  "Is  this  the  best  thing 
f.«r  the  pupils?"  is  the  vital  test  of  every  school 
measure.  School  systems  are  created,  schoolhouses 
are  planned,  school  appliances  are  supplied,  and  teach- 
ers are  prepared  and  sustained  to  promote  pupil  im- 
provement. The  school  is  for  the  pupils,  and  school 
management  and  teaching  are  pre-eminently  the  arts 
of  pupil  betterment.  Pupils  are  led  to  make  the 
most  of  themselves  by  habitually  doing  their  best 
under  the  best  conditions. 

The  School  Organism  is  a  Unit. — The  pupil  and 
the  teacher  are  the  school  essentials ;  all  other  educa- 
tive conditions  and  appliances  are  thought  of  as  school 
helps.  The  organism  exists  for  the  pupil  and  grows 
around  the  pupil.  We  think  of  the  teacher  as  giving 
vitality,  and  of  school  helps  as  giving  efficiency  to  the 
organism.  The  central  idea,  pupil  improvement,  in- 
cludes the  law  of  unity.  All  things  are  made  to  work 
together  for  pupil  good,  and  school  management  be- 
comes the  art  of  unitizing  school  work. 

School  Evolution  is  Organic  School  Growth. — It 
means  the  realization  of  the  possibilities  of  the  school 
as  an  organism.  The  family  is  the  embryo  school, 
but  the  school,  as  we  think  of  it,  comes  of  the  needs 
of  progressive  peoples.  Savages  feel  no  need  of 
schools.  The  early  schools  of  a  people  are  astonish- 
ingly rudimentary  and  inefficient.  Schools  every- 
where have  been  evolved  with  advancing  civilizations, 
but  educational  progress  has  been  slow,  and  the  lines 
of  progress  have  been  zigzag.  AVhen  the  schools  of 


HIGHER  EDUCATIONAL   IDEALS.  5 

a  people  are  at  their  best,  we  call  the  period  the 
golden  age.  Plato  taught  during  the  golden  age  of 
Athens,  and  Quiritiliaii  instructed  during  the  golden 
age  of  Rome.  A  people  may  have  a  golden  age,  but 
the  golden  age  of  the  race  will  always  be  in  the  future, 
and  school  evolution  will  go  on  as  long  as  civilization 
continues  to  advance. 

In  School  Evolution  the  Ideal  gets  to  be  the  Real. — 
All  progress  comes  of  ideals  which  are  in  advance  of 
reals.  Brutes  make  no  progress,  for  they  create  no 
ideals.  Individuals  and  peoples  with  low  ideals,  or 
who  look  back,  retrograde  or  merely  mark  time.  Sav- 
age tribes  look  back,  and  so  "  mark  time."  Unpro- 
gressive  peoples  like  the  Chinese  worship  their  an- 
cestors, and  so  fail  to  make  progress.  Luther,  when 
he  reached  the  meridian  of  life,  ceased  to  reform  be- 
cause he  began  to  look  back.  Peoples  and  institutions 
and  individuals  make  progress  so  long  as  their  out- 
look is  forward  and  upward.  The  best  is  still  in  the 
future.  The  disciples  of  Jesus  look  forward  and 
move  forward.  At  eighty,  Gladstone  still  looked 
forward  and  still  led  the  armies  of  progress.  The 
old  education  looks  back  and  marks  time,  but  the  new 
education  looks  forward  and  moves  upward. 

The  School  at  its  Best  is  our  School  Ideal. — School 
evolution  comes  of  the  efforts  of  the  people  to  realize 
their  educational  ideals.  The  educator  is  not  an  icon- 
oclast, but  a  reformer.  Rousseau,  the  prince  of  an- 
archists, was  not  an  educator.  He  planned  to  destroy 
all  human  institutions  and  go  back  to  Nature.  But 
Rousseau  was  a  world  benefactor,  for  he  broke  fetters, 
cleared  away  a  world  of  rubbish,  and  inspired  educa- 


6       SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

tional  reform.  Bacon  gave  the  golden  rule,  "  Make  a 
stand  on  the  ancient  way  and  look  to  find  the  best 
way."  Pestalozzi  pursuing  the  Baconian  plan,  gave 
the  world  How  Gertrude  Taught  her  Children, 
and  became  the  father  of  the  new  education.  We 
l>egin  educational  reforms  by  elevating  the  school 
ideal,  and  by  managing  to  have  the  real  grow  into  the 
ideal.  We  learn  wisdom  even  from  the  serpent,  for 
as  the  serpent  sheds  the  old  skin  in  forming  the  new, 
so  we  seek  to  have  the  old  education  grow  into  the 
new.  School  evolution  is  perennial.  The  new  edu- 
cation of  to-day  becomes  the  old  education  of  to-mor- 
row. We  shall  continue  through  the  centuries  to  ap- 
proach our  growing  ideal,  "  The  school  at  its  best." 

Pupil  Study  is  the  Greatest  Thing  in  the  New  Edu- 
cation.— Higher  ideals  of  pupil  possibilities  are  condi- 
tions of  pupil  betterment.  What  is  the  pupil  now  ? 
What  is  he  capable  of  becoming  ?  Our  pupil  ideal  is 
the  pupil  with  all  his  possibilities  developing  into  the 
best  manhood.  We  think  of  teaching  as  the  process 
of  promoting  the  growth  of  the  real  pupil  into  the 
realization  of  our  ideal.  As  the  inventor  realizes  his 
ideal  in  his  electric  motor,  so  the  teacher  realizes  his 
ideal  in  the  lives  of  his  pupils.  We  see  in  the  pupil 
all  human  possibilities.  Our  educational  ideal  is  man 
nt  his  best.  Teacher  and  parents,  inspired  by  high 
ideals,  work  earnestly  for  pupil  perfection. 

The  Prepared  Teacher  is  the  Vital  Factor  in  the 
New  Education. — Plato  and  his  peerless  pupil  consti- 
tuted the  greatest  university  of  antiquity.  Garfield's 
conception  of  the  elemental  university  was  President 
Hopkins  on  one  end  of  a  log  and  himself  on  the 


HIGHER  EDUCATIONAL  IDEALS.  7 

other.  The  pupil  and  the  teacher  working  together 
to  develop  power  %  through  mastery  constitute  the 
school.  The  vital  contact  of  pupil  mind  and  teacher 
mind  works  the  miracle  of  pupil  growth.  Pupil  effort, 
stimulated  and  guided  by  the  teacher,  educates.  The 
oneness  of  the  school  life  comes  of  the  teacher  brood- 
ing over  the  pupil,  and  of  pupil  and  teacher  strug- 
gling together  for  mastery.  As  iron  shapes  iron,  so 
the  vital  contact  of  pupil  mind  and  teacher  mind  de- 
velops power,  and  leads  on  to  sturdy  scholarship.  As 
pupil  improvement  comes  of  teacher  fitness,  school 
management  exalts  teacher  preparation. 

Higher  Teacher  Ideals  will  lead  to  Teacher  Excel- 
lence.— Even  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  teacher  ideal  of  the  masses  was  low  indeed, 
and  the  teacher  counted  for  little.  But  as  education 
has  advanced,  the  teacher  ideal  has  become  higher  and 
higher.  The  elevation  of  the  teacher  ideal,  and  with 
its  growth  the  demand  for  better  and  better  teaching, 
is  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  century.  It  has  led  the 
states  and  the  nations  to  provide  professional  schools, 
professional  literature,  and  professional  associations 
for  the  improvement  of  teachers.  Teacher,  what  is 
your  teacher  ideal  ?  I  know  you  have  been  observing 
and  wondering.  You  have  been  thinking  about  the 
best  things  in  the  lives  of  the  teachers  you  have 
known.  You  have  been  thinking  about  the  eminent 
teachers  that  have  blessed  the  race.  You  have  been 
thinking  about  the  Great  Teacher.  Somehow  your 
ideal  teacher  comes  to  embrace  all  teacher  excellencies. 
You  yearn  to  become  such  a  teacher.  You  can  in 
some  degree.  Your  efforts  to  realize  in  yourself  your 


8        SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

teacher  ideal  will  make  of  you  a  better  teacher.  But 
keep  in  mind  that  the  teacher  consecrates  his  life  to 
pupil  betterment.  You  think  not  of  self  nor  of  fame 
nor  of  fortune,  but  rather  of  how  to  lead  your  pupils 
to  make  most  of  themselves.  Man  lives  for  man. 

The  Best  School  Helps  characterize  the  New  Edu- 
cation.— We  marvel  at  the  destitution  of  the  past  in 
school  helps.  We  wonder  at  the  destitution  in  school 
helps  even  in  the  recent  past.  Anything  was  thought 
to  be  good  enough  for  children.  The  wretched  make- 
shifts, still  all  too  common,  tell  of  low  ideals  and  of 
much  lamentable  stupidity.  Even  now,  at  the  dawn 
of  the  twentieth  century,  vastly  better  provisions  are 
made  for  the  improvement  of  fine  horses  than  for  the 
improvement  of  children.  We  visit  a  thousand  good 
schools,  and  fail  to  find  even  one  having  the  best 
facilities  for  the  best  school  work.  But,  when  the 
world  comes  to  realize  that  nothing  is  too  good  for 
children,  the  people  will  gladly  supply  the  best  school 
helps.  Wiser  ideas  and  more  exalted  ideals  will  lead 
up  to  better  and  better  realities.  Nothing  is  too  good 
for  the  child. 

Better  School  Organization  makes  for  School  Im- 
provement.— The  old-time  school  was  a  mob  rather 
than  an  army.  Schools  were  isolated  and  unorgan- 
ized. The  nations  had  not  thought  of  school  sys- 
tems or  of  graded  schools.  School  organization  is 
the  child  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  century  of 
greatest  educational  progress.  We  classify  and  grade 
and  specialize.  We  group  schools  into  organic  units. 
We  create  school  systems.  The  educational  chaos  of 
the  centuries  left  the  masses  to  grope  their  way  in  the 


HIGHER  EDUCATIONAL  IDEALS.  9 

darkness.  Our  school  organizations,  crude  as  they 
are,  must  be  largely  credited  with  greatly  promoting 
the  world's  marvellous  educational  progress.  As  we 
advance  we  study  to  improve  school  organization. 
Each  teacher  does  well  to  create  an  ideal  school  sys- 
tem, embodying  the  best  things  thought  out  and 
worked  out  by  mankind.  We  should  spare  no  effort 
in  promoting  the  growth  of  our  actual  into  our  ideal 
school  organization. 

School  Improvement  comes  of  Educative  School  Gov- 
ernment.— Froebel  and  Herbart  sounded  the  keynote 
of  school  improvement — "  Educate  the  whole  man, 
placing  the  emphasis  on  conduct  and  culture."  Char- 
acter-growing is  the  educational  superlative.  We  now 
think  of  school  management  as  the  art  of  promoting 
good  conduct.  The  movement  in  the  direction  of 
better  school  government  is  almost  revolutionary. 
We  are  beginning  to  know  the  child,  and  are  learn- 
ing to  lead  our  pupils  through  right  motives  to  right 
conduct.  We  govern  up  to  self-government  and  con- 
trol up  to  self-control.  In  concrete  conduct  lessons 
we  lead  our  pupils  to  form  high  conduct  ideals.  We 
try  to  so  manage  that  all  school  work  may  foster  good 
conduct. 

School  Management  is  the  Art  of  vitalizing  the 
School  Programme. — The  school  works  in  the  living 
present  and  its  programme  is  a  living  thing.  Last , 
year's  programme  grows  into  this  year's.  The  school 
programme  keeps  abreast  of  the  times.  As  we  gain 
a  deeper  insight  into  pupil  nature  and  as  the  realm  of 
knowledge  increases  we  modify  our  school  courses. 
Looking  back  means  death  and  bars  progress.  Some 


10     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

of  the  old  unprogressive  universities  boast  of  having 
adhered  for  many  centuries  to  the  same  dead  curricu- 
lum. The  Chinese  are  un progressive,  and  hence  it 
is  fitting  that  their  school  courses  should  be  fixed. 
Among  progressive  peoples  the  growth  of  the  school 
programme  must  go  on  forever. 

We  create  an  Ideal  School  and  work  to  make  it 
Real, — Teachers,  of  all  men,  you  and  your  fellow- 
workers  alone  devote  yourselves  exclusively  to  school 
improvement.  I  venture  to  ask  you  to  create  as  a 
working  model  an  ideal  school  having  the  best  school 
helps.  You  will  visit  the  best  schools  ;  you  will  read 
the  best  things  ;  you  will  consult  the  best  educators ; 
you  will  think  and  imagine  and  invent  and  experi- 
ment. Your  ideal  grows  and  grows,  and  becomes  a 
thing  of  beauty  as  well  as  utility.  Your  school  en- 
vironments are  the  universe,  for  all  things  on  the 
earth  and  in  the  heavens  are  school  helps.  Your  school 
grounds  abound  in  educative  devices  and  elevating  in- 
fluences. Your  schoolhouse,  with  its  furniture,  and 
its  provisions  for  pure  air  and  heat  and  light  and  ex- 
ercise and  school  work,  is  indeed  a  model.  Your  ap- 
paratus, laboratory,  and  library  are  the  best  now  avail- 
able. As  you  work  on  through  the  years  to  make 
your  ideal  school  a  reality,  you  will  wonder  at  the 
continual  growth  of  your  ideal.  The  best  yesterday 
gives  place  to  the  better  of  to-day.  Your  success  edu- 
cates the  people,  inspires  other  teachers,  and,  above 
all,  doubles  your  power  to  help  your  pupils. 

School  Improvement  comes  of  Good  Teaching. — The 
old  schoolmaster  groped  his  way,  for  he  had  not  stud- 
ied effectively  either  himself  or  the  pupil.  He  was 


HIGHER  EDUCATIONAL  IDEALS.  H 

profoundly  ignorant  of  the  laws  of  growth,  and  could 
not  do  otherwise  than  blunder  on  in  the  dark.  The 
modern  teacher  knows  himself,  knows  the  pupil, 
knows  the  subject.  He  studies  to  lead  his  pupils  to 
so  put  forth  effort  as  to  develop  power  in  gaining 
mastery.  He  trains  his  pupils  to  investigate  and  find 
out  for  themselves.  He  manages  to  create  and  sus- 
tain interest,  thus  securing  systematic  and  effective 
work.  Good  teaching  is  ultimate.  In  all  his  teaching 
the  teacher  studies  to  induce  good  conduct.  The  art 
of  school  management  culminates  in  good  teaching. 

Pupils  must  be  led  to  form  High  Ideals. — We  do 
most  for  our  pupils  when  we  lead  them  to  create  and 
try  to  realize  ennobling  ideals.  Low  and  debasing 
ideals  are  the  bane  of  mankind.  It  is  the  mission  of 
the  school  to  elevate  the  race  by  inducing  pupils  to 
form  higher  ideals.  The  church  and  the  school  work 
together  to  lift  up  the  pupils  through  the  purest  and 
highest  ideals.  The  story,  the  biographical  history 
lessons,  the  school  library,  school  government,  and, 
indeed,  all  good  school  work,  tend  to  foster  the  forma- 
tion of  helpful  ideals. 

The  People  must  be  induced  to  form  Higher  Educa- 
tional Ideals. — Our  people  are  sovereigns,  and  we  can 
elevate  our  schools  only  as  we  elevate  public  opinion. 
This  must  be  done  largely  through  the  school. 
Pupils  influence  parents.  The  library,  and  the  best 
periodicals,  and  the  reading  clubs,  and  the  literary 
societies  wonderfully  help.  Good  lectures  are  invalu- 
able. The  semi-annual  educational  sermons  of  all  the 
ministers  are  powerful  for  good.  The  newspaper  con- 
tributes to  fostering  high  school  ideals.  The  teacher 


12     SCHOOL  MANAGKMKXT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

works  through  all  these  agencies  to  create  a  healthy 
public  sentiment  in  favour  of  sustaining  the  best 
schools  and  of  making  all  schools  better. 

The  Ideal  Teacher — who  can  describe  such  a  One  ? 
—Jesus  is  the  perfect  teacher.  Through  the  ages 
great  teachers  have  done  what  they  could  to  lead  the 
race  upward.  A  host  of  mighty  teachers  are  now 
educating  the  world.  Our  ideal  teacher  embodies  the 
best  in  all.  Friend,  you  earnestly  desire  to  become 
an  efficient  teacher.  You  have  a  high  ideal  which 
you  are  seeking  to  realize.  You  are  striving  to  be 
what  you  wish  your  pupils  to  become.  You  are 
studying  to  know  well  yourself,  your  pupils,  and 
your  subjects.  You  are  learning  to  get  close  to  your 
pupils  and  to  quicken  all  their  energies.  As  their 
friend,  you  are  learning  to  lead  your  pupils  wisely. 
More  and  more  you  are  coming  to  realize  your  ideal. 
Slowly  you  are  struggling  up  to  higher  heights,  and 
are  becoming  a  worthy  teacher.  To  you,  school  man- 
agement and  teaching  are  becoming  the  arts  of  lead- 
ing pupils  up  to  a  grand  manhood. 


CHAPTER  II. 

PUPIL   IMPROVEMENT    THROUGH    HELPFUL    PUPIL    STUDY. 

School  Management  is  the  Art  of  Pupil  Betterment. — 
Improvement  of  the  pupil  is  the  central  idea.  School 
systems  are  created  and  school  courses  are  planned  ; 
school  methods  are  devised  and  school  facilities  are 


HELPFUL  PUPIL  STUDY.  13 

provided  ;  professional  schools  are  created  and  teach- 
ers are  sustained  to  promote  pupil  well-being.  Will 
this  benefit  the  pupil  ?  The  answer  must  be  the  test 
of  every  proposed  school  measure.  Is  it  the  best  for 
the  pupil  ?  The  answer  must  determine  the  continu- 
ance, the  modification,  or  the  disuse  of  any  existing 
school  condition.  God  drafts  the  plan  of  each  life. 
Education  is  the  working  out  of  the  divine  plan. 
Teaching  is  leading  the  pupil  to  make  the  most  of 
himself. 

Pupil  Study  is  Fundamental. — The  twin  arts  of 
school  management  and  teaching  are  based  on  insight 
into  pupil  nature.  Know  your  pupils,  is  a  pedagog- 
ical imperative.  As  the  botanist  knows  the  growing 
plant,  so  must  the  teacher  know  the  growing  pupil. 
Since  it  is  guided  self-effort  that  educates,  the  teacher 
must  know  the  springs  of  action  and  the  laws  of 
growth.  Since  teaching  is  leading,  the  teacher  must 
be  the  pupil's  wise  friend.  Since  self-knowledge  is 
the  key  to  pupil  insight,  the  teacher  must  know  him- 
self and  must  learn  to  look  at  the  pupil  as  just  a 
younger  self.  Pupil  study,  now  and  always,  is  the 
greatest  thing  in  education. 

Neglect  of  Childhood  is  the  Sad  Story  of  our  Race. — 
Through  many  centuries  real  child  study  was  not 
thought  of.  The  human  animal  grew  up  like  other 
animals.  Repression  and  force  were  almost  universal. 
Among  ancient  peoples  only  the  Greeks  studied  the 
young,  and  so  developed  a  race  of  mighty  thinkers ; 
only  the  Hebrews  taught  their  children  righteousness. 
Neglect  of  the  young  was  the  world  rule.  What  a 
change  has  come !  Now  child  study  and  ways  of 


14     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

promoting  child  well  being  are  the  world's  chiefest 
interests. 

PUPIL  STUDY  is  OF  UNTOLD  VALUE  TO  TEACHERS. 

"  The  chief  value  of  child  study  seems  to  lie  in  two  directions : 
(1)  It  arouses  the  teacher  to  examine  and  study  the  mental  states 
of  the  children  before  her.  This  may  be  called  its  subjective 
value.  (2)  It  will  in  time  furnish  us  with  a  series  of  conclusions 
that  will  be  of  practical  value  in  guiding  teachers  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  courses  of  study,  methods  of  instruction,  hygienic  and 
sanitary  surroundings  of  school  life,  etc.  This  may  be  called  its 
objective  value." — [NICHOLAS  MURRAY  BUTLER.] 

"  Child  study  brings  the  teacher  into  closer  rapport  with  the 
pupil  and  establishes  that  personal  bond  which  brings  out  the 
power  of  the  teacher,  and  especially  of  a  woman  teacher.  Man 
may  and  can  run  the  school  as  a  machine.  His  voice,  physical 
strength,  and  character  give  him  the  advantage  under  present 
methods.  When  teaching  is  a  work  of  love — to  know  children 
measures  the  lore  for  them — the  woman's  kingdom  will  come  in 
the  schoolroom." — [G.  STANLEY  HALL.] 

"  The  chief  value  of  child  study,  to  my  mind,  is  to  enable  the 
teacher  to  diagnose  the  personality  of  the  child,  to  know  some- 
thing of  the  child's  body,  mind,  and  soul.  The  chief  value  at 
present  of  this  diagnosis  is  to  find  out  children  who  have  defects 
in  hearing,  seeing,  or  in  their  motor  activities.  In  other  words, 
the  chief  value  of  child  study  is  to  call  the  teacher's  attention 
away  from  '  word  cram '  to  the  child  himself.  It  should  follow, 
then,  that  if  the  teacher  studies  the  child  she  should  apply  the 
best  conditions  for  the  child's  growth." — [FRANCIS  W.  PARKER.] 

A  PLAN  FOR  INFANT  STUDY. 

"Suffer  the  Little  Ones  to  come  unto  Me."— This  is 
the  keynote  of  human  progress.  It  remained  for 
Jesus  to  found  the  new  education  on  the  appreciation 
of  infant  possibilities.  "  Of  such  is  the  kingdom  of 
heaven."  It  remained  for  Pestalozzi  and  Froebel 
and  Ilerbart  and  their  successors  to  take  up  the  cry 


HELPFUL  PUPIL  STUDY.  15 

of  Jesus  and  give  the  world  the  kindergarten  and  the 
primary  school.  It  still  remains  for  the  mighty  army 
of  educators  to  profoundly  study  pupil  nature  in  its 
advanced  phases,  and  give  the  world  the  ideal  inter- 
mediate school,  the  ideal  high  school,  and  the  ideal 
college. 

Study  the  Real  Child. — How  may  the  teacher  best 
study  the  pupil  ?  Any  plan  of  child  study  that  gives 
insight  into  the  nature  of  the  growing  pupil  will 
prove  helpful.  The  essential  thing  is  actual  study 
of  the  pupil.  You  need  to  study  the  real  child.  You 
must  study  the  little  one  while  it  is  happy  in  its  play 
or  work  and  wholly  unconscious  of  such  study.  You 
must  study  your  pupils  when  absorbed  in  play  and  les- 
Bons.  As  your  aim  is  pupil  knowledge  rather  than 
science,  you  keep  the  recording  angel  out  of  sight. 
Later  on  you  may  make  contributions  to  scientific 
child  study.  You  investigate  for  yourself  in  your 
own  way,  but  welcome  helpful  suggestions.  The  fol- 
lowing general  plan,  to  be  supplemented  by  your 
special  method  of  child  study,  is  believed  to  be  safe 
and  efficient : 

What  is  the  Infant  ? — The  budding  stage  of  human 
growth,  from  birth  to  the  sixth  year,  is  termed  in- 
fancy. You  will  make  your  studies  of  some  baby 
friend  and  live  close  to  it  during  these  marvellous 
years.  You  will  drink  at  the  fountain.  Your  own 
sympathies  and  intuitions  are  your  best  guides.  In- 
telligent mothers  work  nearest  to  God  and  are  your 
wisest  counsellors.  Your  fellow-teachers,  who  like 
yourself  are  studying  infant  nature,  will  suggest  the 
freshest  things.  You  find  the  kindergarten  circle  an 


16     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

inspiration.  Some  good  books,  revealing  the  wonders 
experienced  by  scientific  observers,  will  prove  help- 
ful.* Current  kindergarten  literature  will  prove  high- 
ly suggestive,  f 

The  Precious  Half  Hours  spent  with  your  Baby  Friend 
help  most. — You  gain  the  rarest  treasures  by  direct  in- 
sight. No  theories  or  cumbersome  methods  or  trouble- 
some notes  embarrass  you.  You  come  into  touch  with 
the  life  of  an  embryo  self.  All  its  buddings  intensely 
interest  you.  How  does  the  little  one  learn  to  walk, 
to  talk,  to  do  things,  to  know  things  ?  You  observe 
with  delight  that  your  little  friend  grows  through  self- 
effort,  and  that  from  month  to  month  it  perceives  bet- 
ter, remembers  better,  and  does  things  better.  You 
find  surprises  and  poetry  at  every  step.  You  never 
grow  weary  in  comparing  your  baby  friend  with  other 
infants.  Heredity  opens  to  you  a  world  of  marvels. 
Evolution  takes  on  new  meaning  as  you  indulge  a  lit- 
tle in  comparative  psychology.  Then  you  discover, 
it  may  be,  a  striking  resemblance  between  the  earliest 
race  development  and  the  development  of  your  infant 
friend.  Thus  you  come  to  understand  in  some  degree 
infancy,  and  learn  to  answer  reasonably  well  the  ques- 
tion, "  What  is  the  infant  ? " 

A  PLAN  FOR  CHILD  STUDY. 

What  is  the  Child?— The  fanciful,  trustful  stage  of 
pupil  growth,  from  the  sixth  to  the  tenth  year,  is 
termed  childhood.  How  may  you  best  study  the 

*  Preyer's  Infant  Mind  :  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

f  Symbolic  Education,  Susan  E.  Blow :  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 


HELPFUL  PUPIL  STUDY.  17 

child  ?  Consider  various  plans,  and  then  pursue  your 
own  plan.  Eecall  as  best  you  can  your  own  child- 
hood experiences.  Rely  most  on  your  own  insight. 
You  will  have  a  special  child  friend  with  whom  you 
will  spend  one  or  two  precious  half  hours  each  week. 
Comparing  your  infant  and  your  child  friends,  you 
gain  skill  in  estimating  mental  growth.  The  increase 
in  physical  and  mental  and  moral  vigour  is  a  constant 
surprise  to  you.  Then  you  find  delight  in  comparing 
the  growth  of  your  child  friend  with  the  childhood 
stage  of  race  development..^  Your  interviews  with 
your  fellow-students  engaged  in  child  study  are  in- 
spiring and  suggestive.  Your  primary  circle  secures 
systematic  study.  You  find  child  literature  wonder- 
fully helpful.  You  select  as  helps  one  or  more  of  the 
many  good  books  which  treat  of  the  child  and  child 
education. 

You  study  for  yourself  a  Eeal  Child. — Trusting  most 
to  your  own  insight  and  your  own  sympathies,  you 
constantly  put  yourself  in  the  place  of  the  child  and 
live  its  life.  More  and  more  you  come  to  understand 
the  child.  The  study  of  your  child  friend  fits  you  to 
enter  into  the  lives  of  all  children.  Indeed,  each  pupil 
becomes  to  you  a  child  friend.  Every  hour  spent 
with  your  pupils  enriches  you.  Knowing  your  pupils, 
knowing  their  individual  wants  and  ways,  you  become 
an  intelligent  child  leader.  You  get  to  understand 
childhood,  and  become  prepared  to  answer  with  some 
satisfaction  the  question,  "  What  is  the  child  ? "  You 
win  the  hearts  of  the  little  ones,  and  so  make  the  pri- 
mary school  work  a  constant  joy. 


18      SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

A  PLAN  FOR  STUDYING  THE  BOY  AND  GIRL. 

What  is  the  Boy? — The  exploring,  the  imitative, 
the  habit-forming  stage  of  growth,  from  the  tenth  to 
the  fourteenth  year,  is  termed  boyhood  and  girlhood. 
Coming  between  childhood  and  youth,  this  is  desig- 
nated as  the  intermediate  culture  period.  The  burn- 
ing desire  to  find  out,  the  restless  activity,  the  aston- 
ishing imitative  tendencies,  make  this  pre-eminently 
the  exploring  and  habit-forming  stage  of  development. 
How  are  we  to  get  to  understand  the  intermediate 
pupil  ?  We  begin  by  vividly  recalling  our  own  ex- 
periences during  this  period. 

You  spend  Precious  Hours  with  your  Boy  or  Girl 
Friend. — You  live  close  to  your  young  friend — study- 
ing, reading,  playing,  exploring  with  him.  You  lead 
him  to  talk  with  you  about  the  things  which  most  in- 
terest him.  You  observe  him  in  his  associations  with 
others.  You  compare  his  activities  with  infant  activi- 
ties and  with  child  activities,  and  marvel  at  the  growth. 
You  compare  your  friend  with  other  boys  and  girls, 
and  somehow  you  come  to  look  upon  each  pupil  as  a 
special  friend.  You  never  weary  of  tracing  resem- 
blances between  the  growth  of  your  boy  friend  and 
the  boyhood  stage  of  race  growth.  You  interview 
teachers  who  are  earnestly  studying  the  intermediate 
phase  of  pupil  growth.  You  read  the  choicest  juve- 
nile literature,  and  study  one  or  more  suggestive  books 
treating  of  boy  and  girl  growth  and  culture.  You 
gain  inspiration  at  your  intermediate  circle  for  pupil 
study.  Thus  you  come  to  know  reasonably  well  your 
boy  or  girl  friend,  and  so  begin  to  understand  all  boys 


HELPFUL   PUPIL  STUDY.  19 

and  girls.  Thus  you  become  able  to  answer  with  con- 
siderable satisfaction  the  question,  "  What  is  the  boy  ? " 
You  somehow  manage  to  make  each  boy  and  each 
girl  your  friend,  and  so  make  the  school  work  a  con- 
stant delight. 

A  PLAN  FOE  STUDYING  YOUTH. 

What  is  the  Youth? — The  restless,  formative  stage 
of  pupil  growth  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  eighteenth 
year  is  termed  youth.  About  the  beginning  of  this 
period  there  is  almost  a  leap  in  both  physical  and 
mental  growth.  Irrepressible  yearnings  for  great 
things  begin  to  sway  the  youth.  Egoism  begins  to 
give  place  to  altruism.  Duty  impulses  become  com- 
mands. The  imitative  activities  of  the  boy  become 
the  creative  activities  of  the  youth.  "Will  asserts  its 
sovereignty,  and  the  youth  must  do  or  die ;  action  is 
salvation.  During  these  restless  years  life  ideals  are 
formed,  and  the  trend  is  given  that  leads  on  to  excel- 
lency. How  may  we  with  greatest  profit  study  our 
high-school  pupils?  The  wise  teacher  will  continue 
to  study  the  individual  pupil.  You  make  some  youth 
your  special  friend  and  companion  and  spend  with 
him  one  or  two  hours  each  week.  You  have  learned 
to  put  yourself  in  the  place  of  the  infant,  the  child, 
the  boy.  Your  youthful  days  are  readily  recalled. 
You  find  it  easy  to  put  yourself  in  the  place  of  your 
new  friend,  and  thus  you  come  to  understand  him. 
You  converse  with  him,  read  with  him,  investigate 
with  him,  sympathize  with  him  in  his  hopes  and  fears, 
in  his  joys  and  sorrows.  You  compare  him  with 
other  youths  and  with  your  younger  friends.  You 


20      SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

observe  him  in  his  daily  work  and  in  his  association 
with  others.  You  read  the  best  books  treating  of 
youth  culture.  You  spend  an  hour  each  week  in  your 
high-school  circle,  consecrated  to  the  study  of  youth. 
Thus  your  high-school  pupils  become  an  open  book 
to  you,  and  you  can  for  yourself  give  an  intelligent 
answer  to  the  question,  "  What  is  the  youth  ? " 

A  PLAN  FOR  STUDYING  MANHOOD. 

What  is  the  Young  Man? — The  differentiating, 
crowning  stage  of  pupil  growth  is  termed  young  man- 
hood. We  include  in  this  period  college  and  uni- 
versity life.  From  eighteen  to  twenty-five  we  think 
of  the  pupil  as  a  young  man  or  a  young  woman. 
Pupil  life  closes  with  this  period.  The  college  stands 
for  the  highest  stage  of  school  culture.  How  may 
the  teacher  best  study  the  student  ?  Self-knowledge 
is  the  key.  You  think  of  the  student  as  another  self, 
only  a  little  less  matured.  Your  memories  of  your 
own  student  life  are  fresh,  and  you  find  it  easy  to 
put  yourself  in  the  place  of  the  student.  In  our 
times  young  men  and  young  women  act  important 
parts  in  all  measures  of  reform.  You  work  with 
them  in  these  endeavours  and  form  close  and  beautiful 
friendships.  You  are  one  with  the  students  in  origi- 
nal research.  You  study  with  them  literature,  and 
psychology,  and  ethics,  and  sociology,  and  philosophy. 
Then  you  find  the  meeting  of  your  Student  Study 
Circle  invigorating  and  helpful.  You  get  to  under- 
stand the  student,  and  find  yourself  prepared  to  answer 
with  a  degree  of  satisfaction  the  question,  "  What  is 
the  young  man  ?  " 


HELPFUL  PUPIL  STUDY.  21 

What  is  the  Man  ?  —  The  working  stage  of  human 
growth  is  termed  manhood.  It  extends  from  the 
twenty-fifth  year  to  the  end  of  life.  The  Humboldts 
and  Gladstones  have  measurably  abolished  old  age. 
We  do  not  think  of  the  man  as  a  pupil.  In  the 
school  of  life  a  man  no  longer  needs  a  guide  ;  he 
works  out  his  own  salvation.  Does  the  teacher  need 
to  study  the  man  ?  Yes,  you  must  become  acquainted 
with  human  life  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave.  Biog- 
raphy and  sociology  and  literature  and  philosophy 
and  history  are  manhood  studies.  You  need  to  study 
the  growing  self  in  all  the  stages  of  development,  that 
you  may  become  accustomed  to  think  of  a  life  as  a 
whole.  In  converse  with  your  bosom  friends  you 
gain  deeper  insight  into  human  nature,  and  come  to 
understand  all  men.  You  mingle  with  the  world's 
workers,  and  feel  the  mighty  impulses  that  affect  man- 
kind. Biography  and  history  and  literature  and  soci- 
ology and  philosophy  become  living  realities,  and  you 
realize  the  past  in  the  present. 


STUDY    THE    PuPIL    AS    A    PHYSICAL    BEING. 

Mental  Betterment  depends  on  Physical  Betterment. 

—  The  teacher  profoundly  studies  the  physical  con- 
ditions of  growth.  The  self  lives  in  and  works 
through  a  material  body  with  material  environments. 
The  teacher  must  know  more  than  the  physician,  for 
to  develop  a  vigorous  physical  manhood  is  a  greater 
work  than  to  heal  disease.  The  teacher  studies  to 
command  the  best  hygienic  conditions,  and  to  lead 
pupils  to  form  the  best  hygienic  habits.  Thus  is  laid 
the  foundation  for  a  vigorous  manhood. 


22     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

The  ability  of  a  Pupil  to  do  School  Work  is  meas- 
ured by  his  Physical  Strength. — This  law  demands  far- 
reaching  reforms  in  school  management  and  in  teach- 
ing. The  teacher  must  study  the  physical  as  well  as 
the  mental  abilities  of  the  learner,  and  adapt  the 
work.  Most  pupils  can  profitably  do  the  average 
work ;  some  can  safely  do  more ;  while  a  few  are 
physically  unfit  to  do  the  work  of  the  class.  Science 
in  the  near  future  will  doubtless  give  us  easy  rules  of 
measurement  to  determine,  in  some  degree,  classifica- 
tion and  management  and  methods ;  but  most  must 
depend  on  the  insight  of  the  teacher.  Good  common 
sense  must  supplement  all  tests. 

Vision  is  tested. — Defective  vision  is  fearfully 
prevalent.  Probably  one  fourth  of  our  pupils  suffer 
in  some  degree  from  impaired  sight.  The  teacher, 
trained  to  test  the  senses,  tests  the  eyes  of  each  pupil. 
Those  suffering  from  defective  vision  are  seated  with 
reference  to  the  light.  When  deemed  advisable,  parents 
are  requested  to  consult  an  oculist,  and  secure  when 
necessary  properly  fitted  glasses.  Great  suffering  and 
irreparable  loss  are  thus  prevented.  The  teacher  studies 
to  prevent  as  well  as  to  remedy  defective  vision. 

Hearing  is  tested, — Probably  one  pupil  in  five 
suffers  from  defective  hearing.  The  teacher  tests  the 
ears  of  each  pupil.  Defectives  are  given  favourable 
positions.  Parents  are  urged  to  consult  a  specialist. 
How  many  cases  of  suffering  and  of  stunted  lives  may 
be  prevented  by  these  simple  tests !  The  teacher  lives 
close  to  the  pupil,  and  finds  out  and  seeks  to  remedy 
physical  defects.  Physical  culture  goes  on  side  by 
side  with  mental  culture  and  moral  culture. 


HELPFUL   PUPIL  STUDY.  23 

STUDY   THE    PuPIL    AS    A    SELF. 

What  goes  on  in  the  Pupil's  Mind  ? — Not  to  know, 
is  to  confess  unfitness  for  teaching.  As  the  botanist 
studies  plants  in  their  properties,  so  the  teacher  studies 
the  pupils  in  their  activities.  Pupil  activities  are  to 
the  teacher  what  the  scale  is  to  the  musician.  The 
study  of  pupil  activities,  pupil  growth,  pupil  processes, 
and  pupil  motives  does  most  to  prepare  teachers  for 
their  work.  All  other  plans  and  devices  must  be 
made  auxiliaries.  These  studies  keep  the  teacher  face 
to  face  with  mental  life. 

Each  Self  is  a  Type  of  all  Selves. — You  are  conscious 
of  perceiving,  apperceiving,  and  representing ;  of  feel- 
ing self-emotions,  social  emotions,  and  emotions  of  the 
true,  the  beautiful,  the  good  ;  of  attending,  determin- 
ing, and  executing.  You  think  of  the  pupil  as  an- 
other self,  doing  feebly  what  you  do  vigorously. 
What  goes  on  in  your  mind  goes  on  in  the  pupil's 
mind.  The  elemental  soul  activities  are  ever  the 
same  ;  each  self  is  a  type  of  all  selves.  Thus  it  is  that 
you  are  able  to  understand  and  to  lead  your  pupils. 

He  who  knows  himself  knows  all  Men. — The  only 
road  to  pupil  knowledge  is  self-knowledge.  Self- 
knowledge  is  the  key  to  all  knowledge.  You  experi- 
ence all  soul  activities.  You  look  within  and  actually 
see  yourself  thinking  and  admiring  and  resolving. 
With  a  living  teacher  you  study  an  easy  psychology, 
and  learn  to  describe  and  explain  the  phenomena  of 
mental  life.  You  study  experimentally  the  inter- 
action between  a  self  and  his  organism.  You  study 
the  larger  self  in  history  and  literature  and  life,  and 


24  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

become  rich  in  the  race  experience.  You  marvel  how 
the  mists  begin  to  clear  away,  giving  you  clear  insight 
into  what  goes  on  in  the  minds  of  your  pupils. 

METHODS  OF  PUPIL  STUDY. 

Adopt  some  Plan  for  Pupil  Study.— The  essential 
thing  is  real  child  study.  Any  plan  that  leads  teachers 
to  observe  children  and  to  gain  insight  into  pupil  na- 
ture does  good.  You  observe  for  yourself  and  also 
study  suggestive  books  and  journals  and  plans  for 
child  study.  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  the  acknowledged 
leader,  presents  extremely  valuable  as  well  as  practical 
plans  for  pupil  study.  Col.  F.  W.  Parker  has  done 
much  to  make  all  teachers  original  investigators  in  the 
study  of  the  child.  Prof.  Earl  Barnes  has  worked 
out  valuable  plans  of  pupil  study  on  the  side  of  morals. 
His  suggestions  for  methods  of  studying  children  are 
golden.  Our  educational  literature  is  already  rich  in 
plans  for  pupil  study.  The  presentations  at  our  edu- 
cational associations  and  in  our  summer  normals  and 
in  our  child  study  circles  are  fresh,  suggestive,  in- 
spiring. The  young  teacher  is  in  danger  from  the 
very  abundance  of  good  things.  You  will  do  well  to 
ponder  long  before  adopting  a  plan  for  systematic 
pupil  study.  What  will  most  benefit  yourself  and 
your  pupils  ?  Remember  that  David  with  his  crude 
sling  was  far  more  efficient  than  David  in  Saul's  elab- 
orate armour. 

Methods  of  studying  Children.* — "  Whatever  suc- 
cess has  attended  educational  efforts  in  the  past  has 

*  Prof.  Earl  Barnes,  Studies  in  Education. 


HELPFUL   PUPIL  STUDY.  25 

been  due  to  the  direct  or  the  indirect  study  of  human 
nature.  The  newness  of  the  movement  of  the  last  ten 
years  consists  in  the  fact  that  this  study  has  become 
self-conscious ;  that  it  concerns  itself  with  the  indi- 
vidual during  the  period  of  childhood  and  youth ; 
and  that  it  uses,  to  some  extent,  the  methods  of  mod- 
ern inductive  science.  Child  study  is  at  present 
largely  an  applied  science ;  it  has  to-day  the  same  re- 
lation to  psychology  that  horticulture  has  to  botany. 

"Practically,  in  our  real  work  with  children  we 
probably  draw  more  upon  our  memories  for  an  inter- 
pretation of  their  acts  than  upon  any  knowledge  we 
have  gained  through  the  study  of  other  children.  In 
our  own  work  we  have  found  no  method  more  useful 
for  students  and  teachers  who  wish  to  understand 
children  than  that  of  carefully  writing  out  their  own 
memories  along  vital  and  definite  lines. 

"  All  strong  advance  in  science  has  so  far  been  made 
through  the  direct  study  of  reality,  and  probably  one 
comes  nearest  to  the  reality  with  which  education 
deals  when  he  stands  in  the  immediate  presence  of  a 
child.  Direct  studies  on  individual  children  must 
give  us  whatever  of  final  knowledge  we  achieve  con- 
cerning children.  When  we  come  to  apply  the  same 
skill  and  honesty  to  the  study  of  the  natural  history 
of  childhood  that  we  now  devote  to  botany  and 
zoology,  we  shall  make  great  progress  in  our  treatment 
of  children. 

"The  seating  and  lighting  of  buildings,  the  ar- 
rangement of  programmes,  the  making  of  text-books, 
the  assigning  of  lessons,  all  the  problems  of  discipline, 
and,  still  more,  the  determining  of  each  individual's 


26     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

personal  qualities  against  tins  background  of  averages 
— all  this  makes  the  demand  for  such  studies  im- 
perative. 

"  If  a  man  goes  about  his  daily  work  with  his  eyes 
and  his  heart  open  ;  if  he  lives  over  his  childhood's 
life,  with  an  honest  desire  to  see  what  kind  of  a  child 
he  was  and  what  kind  of  a  man  he  is,  quickening  his 
memory  with  childish  records  and  autobiography  ;  if 
he  studies  children  under  carefully  arranged  condi- 
tions, bringing  the  same  fair-mindedness  and  persist- 
ence to  his  work  that  the  scientist  brings  to  his  labo- 
ratory ;  and  if  he  brings  all  these  scattered  studies 
into  their  due  relations  by  setting  them  in  the  back- 
ground of  general  law,  based  on  large  quantitative 
studies,  he  will  accomplish  all  that  he  can  reasonably 
hope  for  in  these  days  of  beginnings." 


CHAPTER  III. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  PUPIL  THROUGH  IMPROVEMENT 
%    OF  THE  TEACHER. 

We  think  of  the  Teacher  as  an  Educator. — The 

teacher,  like  the  poet,  is  made  as  well  as  born.  The 
most  gifted  teachers  are  the  hardest  workers,  and 
work  develops  power.  The  purpose  of  the  school  is 
educative,  and  the  teacher  is  pre-eminently  the  edu- 
cator. Educational  conditions  and  facilities  are  im- 
portant, but  the  teacher  is  the  vital  force.  All  good 
comes  through  lawful  self-effort,  but  it  is  the  teacher 


IMPROVEMENT  OP  THE  TEACHER.      27 

who  leads  his  pupils  to  do  their  best  in  the  best  way. 
We  lead  our  pupils  to  make  most  of  themselves.  The 
teacher  is  the  pupils'  model  as  he  gets  closest  to  them 
and  stands  for  the  best  in  their  young  lives.  He  is 
the  pupils'  instructor,  and  he  leads  them  step  by  step 
to  master  the  realms  of  knowledge.  He  is  the  pupil's 
guide,  as  he  manages  to  have  them  so  put  forth  effort 
as  to  develop  power.  He  is  the  leader,  for  he  leads 
pupils  on  in  their  efforts  to  attain.  He  is  the  pupils' 
friend,  for  he  studies  the  well-being  of  learners  and 
awakens  in  them  all  ennobling  impulses  and  aspira- 
tions. Improvement  of  the  teacher  is  the  greatest  of 
all  benefactions,  for  it  means  the  uplifting  of  all  men. 

PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING. 

Teaching  is  a  Profession. — The  advancement  of  the 
teaching  profession  will  do  most  to  promote  teacher 
improvement.  At  the  extremes,  even  now,  the  teach- 
ing profession  stands  among  the  first.  Kindergart- 
ners  are  professional  teachers,  as  are  the  faculties  of 
our  colleges  and  universities.  But  our  teachers  in 
our  elementary  and  secondary  schools  as  a  class  are 
still  semi-professional  and  non-professional.  For  the 
improvement  of  teachers,  the  transformation  of  the 
great  body  of  instructors  into  professional  teachers  is 
an  educational  desideratum.  To  this  end,  tenure  of 
office,  adequate  salaries,  specialization,  teaching  as  a 
career,  and  teacher  culture  are  essential  conditions. 

1.  Permanency  is  Fundamental. — Competent  and 
tried  teachers  should  hold  positions  during  efficient 
service.  The  civil  service  reform  should  certainly  in- 
clude teachers.  No  other  economic  blunder  so  tends 


28     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

to  deprive  the  teaching  ranks  of  the  most  gifted  teach- 
ers, or  to  so  discourage  thorough  preparation  for 
teaching,  as  the  uncertain  tenure  of  office.  Extending 
the  civil  service  reform  to  teachers  will  do  most  of  all 
to  make  teaching  a  profession.  We  can  scarcely  con- 
ceive of  the  wearing  anxiety  and  the  eating  worry 
which  teachers  suffer  on  account  of  annual  elections. 
It  is  simply  barbarous. 

2.  Adequate  Salaries  are  Essential — The  fact  that 
the  salaries   of  our  teachers  have   been  quadrupled 
during  the  closing  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  is 
highly  encouraging.      Many  educators   now   get   as 
large  salaries  as  the  judiciary,  as  the  ministry,  as  the 
State  officers.     The  best  positions  now  pay  salaries  of 
$5,000  and    $10,000,   and   even    $15,000.      But   the 
average  pay  of  our  teachers  is  far  below  that  of  our 
lawyers  and  doctors  and  business  men.     Indeed,  the 
salaries  of  the  great  body  of  our  teachers  are  shame- 
fully inadequate.     Teaching  demands  the  best  talent, 
the  most  thorough  preparation,  and  the  means  for 
constant  growth.     Generous  salaries  will  work  like 
magic  in  the  promotion  of  teacher  betterment,  and  in 
transforming  the  trade  of  teaching  into  the  profession 
of  teaching. 

3.  Specialization  is  Cardinal.— Concentration  is  es- 
sential to  the  highest  efficiency.     The  crudeness  of 
very  much  of  our  school  work  comes  of  our  failure 
to  utilize  specialization  in  teaching.     The  kindergart- 
ner   and  the   college    professor   are   specialists,   and 
hence  our  kindergartens  and  our  colleges  are  marvels 
of  efficiency.      Our  best  primary  teachers,  like  our 
kindergartners,  are  becoming  specialists  in  child  cnl- 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER.      29 

ture.  It  is  believed  that  in  the  near  future  each  high- 
school  teacher  and  each  intermediate  teacher  will  be 
a  specialist,  and  hence  a  professional  teacher.  Even 
rural  teachers  will  come  to  be  specialists  in  ungraded 
school  work.  Specialization  enables  the  teacher  to 
become  an  educational  artist,  thus  greatly  elevating 
the  teaching  profession  and  wonderfully  improving 
our  schools. 

4.  Teaching  must  be  made  an  Inviting  Career.— 
Teaching  must  offer  desirable  careers  in  order  to  en- 
list the  most  gifted.  As  the  century  closes,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  no  better  field  of  human  achievement  is 
open  to  our  young  men  and  women  than  the  high- 
er education.  In  no  other  profession  is  promotion 
speedier  or  the  reward  surer.  No  other  career  gives 
higher  satisfaction  or  commands  greater  respect  or 
develops  a  grander  manhood.  College  presidents 
take  rank  with  governors,  and  college  professors  and 
city  superintendents  take  rank  with  authors  and  states- 
men. But  to  the  rank  and  file  of  the  mighty  army 
of  teachers,  teaching  can  not  yet  be  considered  an  in- 
viting career.  True,  a  marvellous  change  has  taken 
place.  In  the  past,  history  and  literature  exhibit  the 
pedagogue  as  the  butt  of  ridicule ;  now  the  teacher 
stands  for  the  best  in  his  community.  No  other  offi- 
cer of  the  State  gets  so  near  to  the  people  or  does  so 
much  for  human  elevation.  But  as  a  life  career,  the 
,  outlook  for  the  mass  of  our  teachers  is  not  cheering. 
/  Positions  are  still  precarious,  and  salaries  are  still 
I  pinchingly  small.  Worst  of  all  is  the  hopelessness  as 
\to  merited  promotion.  Teacher  betterment  demands 
such  measures  as  will  multiply  desirable  positions 


30     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

and  make  merited  promotion  reasonably  certain. 
Then  we  may  hope  to  see  large  numbers  of  our  gifted 
youths  select  teaching  as  a  profession  and  thoroughly 
prepare  themselves  for  the  work.  Then,  like  lawyers, 
teachers  will  be  content  to  begin  at  the  bottom  and 
work  up.  The  certainty  of  success  through  merit 
will  inspire  heroic  effort,  and  lead  the  teacher  to  be- 
come an  educational  artist  and  a  power  for  good. 

5.  Teaching  must  be  made  a  Learned  Profession.— 
The  prepared  teacher  is  the  world's  great  want.  As 
the  nineteenth  century  closes,  it  is  humiliating  to  be 
compelled  to  say  that  of  our  four  hundred  thousand 
American  teachers  scarcely  one  third  are  well  pre- 
pared for  their  work.  A  majority  of  our  teachers 
are  deficient  in  culture  and  in  professional  education. 
Many  even  of  our  college  and  university  professors 
do  not  know  how  to  teach.  But  the  star  is  shining  in 
the  east.  Our  universities  are  creating  departments 
of  education  side  by  side  with  the  departments  of  law 
and  medicine.  All  the  States  now  sustain  systems  of 
normal  schools.  Summer  normals  with  their  quick- 
ening influences  now  reach  all  teachers.  Teaching  is 
rapidly  becoming  a  profession,  and  we  must  make  it 
in  truth  a  learned  profession.  The  teacher  must  stand 

for  culture. 

THE  IDEAL  TEACHER. 

We  think  of  the  ideal  teacher  as  gifted,  as  skilled, 
as  cultured,  as  devoted,  as  progressive.  How  are  we 
to  produce  such  teachers  ?  How  are  we  to  fill  our 
schools  with  such  artists  ? 

1.  The  World  wants  Gifted  Teachers. — Since  the 
teacher  is  the  pupil  model,  the  pupil  leader,  the  pupil 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER.      31 

inspirer,  he  must  be  superior  physically,  mentally, 
morally.  Only  gifted  men  and  women  should  become 
teachers.  Youths  who  manifest  teaching  abilities 
should  be  encouraged  to  choose  teaching  as  a  profes- 
sion. Philip  thanked  the  gods  that  his  son  could  have 
Aristotle  for  his  teacher.  All  parents  do  well  to  be 
supremely  thankful  that  their  children  may  have  gift- 
ed teachers.  Surely  the  world  should  encourage  gifted 
youths  to  devote  their  lives  to  teaching.  Surely  the 
most  gifted  should  elect  teaching  as  a  profession. 

2.  Culture  characterizes   our  Ideal  Teacher. — Cul- 
ture conditions  good  teaching.     Culture  means  the 
development  of  character  and  of  taste  as  well  as  the 
attainment  of  scholarship.     Our  schools  and  colleges 
stand  for  culture.     At  the  dawn  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury it  is  safe  and  reasonable  to  require  that  our  ele- 
mentary teachers  shall   be   high-school  and  normal- 
school  graduates,  and  that  our  high-school  teachers  shall 
be  trained  college  graduates.     This  reasonable  require- 
ment will  give  us  cultured  teachers.     Such  teachers 
will  command  respect  and  will  be  called  to  leadership. 
Teaching  will  be  recognised  as  a  learned  profession. 

3.  Professional   Preparation   is    Essential — In   the 
new  education  the  twin  arts  of  school  management 
and  teaching  are  based  on  the  science  of  education. 
The  prepared  teacher  works  in  the  light  of  the  edu- 
cational thought  and  experience  of  all  the  ages.     In 
the  old  education  there  was  no  real  basis.     The  old 
schoolmaster,  ignorant  of  pupil  nature,  of  educational 
law,  and  of  educational  economy,  literally  groped  his 
way.     His  many  legitimate  successors  in  our  schools 
and  colleges  blunder  on  in  well-worn  ruts. 


32      SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

The  creation  of  professional  schools  for  the  pro- 
fessional education  of  teachers  emphasizes  the  essen- 
tial characteristic  of  the  new  education.  Scholarship 
is  one  thing,  and  skill  in  teaching  and  school  manage- 
ment is  quite  another  thing.  Surely  the  teacher  needs 
to  study  pupil  nature  in  the  light  of  educational  psy- 
chology, and  teaching  and  school  management  in  the 
light  of  the  history  and  science  of  education.  Surely 
the  teacher  needs  to  practise  these  arts  under  the 
guidance  of  skilled  educators  before  assuming  the 
weighty  responsibilities  of  the  educator.  As  a  legal 
education  is  made  the  condition  of  admission  to  the 
bar,  so  should  a  pedagogical  education  be  made  the 
condition  of  admission  to  the  desk.  Nor  is  the  time 
distant  when  in  our  own  land,  as  now  in  other  lands, 
persons  without  a  professional  preparation  for  teach- 
ing will  be  debarred  from  the  brotherhood  of  teachers. 

4.  Like  all  Artists,  the  Ideal  Teacher  is  Devoted.— 
Teaching  demands  consecrated  lives,  and  the  entire 
time  and  energies  of  the  most  gifted.  Just  think  of 
the  tremendous  work  the  teacher  undertakes ;  he  as- 
sumes the  fearful  responsibility  of  leading  his  pupils 
to  make  the  most  of  themselves.  Other  artists  think 
of  time  ;  the  teacher  thinks  of  eternity  as  well  as  time. 
His  pupils  are  to  shine  brighter  than  the  stars  for- 
ever. The  teacher  spirit  is  the  spirit  of  devotion  and 
consecration,  and  this  is  the  crowning  preparation  for 
the  work  of  teaching.  Your  ideals  are  high,  and  you 
feel  an  irrepressible  longing  to  realize  these  ideals. 
You  intensely  love  your  pupils,  and  see  in  them 
boundless  possibilities.  You  feel  an  intense  interest 
in  your  work,  and  day  by  day  you  strive  to  do 


IMPROVEMENT  OP  THE  TEACHER.      33 

the  most  possible  for  your  pupils.     The  teacher  is 
devoted. 

5.  The  Ideal  Teacher  is  Progressive. — Only  growing 
teachers  are  fit  to  lead  growing  pupils.  The  founder 
of  the  Oswego  Normal  School,  the  American  Pesta- 
lozzi,  Dr.  Edward  A.  Sheldon,  has  been  a  leader  in 
educational  reform  for  four  decades ;  yet  he  introduces 
his  latest  outline  of  work  with  these  golden  words : 

We  do  not  undertake  to  say,  nor  do  we  presume,  that  the 
subjects  taken  up  are  in  all  cases  the  best  that  might  be  selected, 
nor  that  the  order  of  arrangement  is  in  all  cases  the  best  possible. 
All  that  we  can  say  is,  that  at  the  present  time  the  scheme  pre- 
sented is  the  one  we  are  following.  We  have  no  expectation  that 
it  will  be  the  same  another  year ;  in  fact,  our  plan  is  to  change 
from  time  to  time.  We  shall  come  very  far  short  of  our  privilege 
and  duty  if  we  do  not  continue  to  grow  in  this  work,  and  all 
growth  involves  change. 

What  an  admirable  object  lesson  of  the  spirit  of 
the  new  education  and  of  the  progressive  teacher ! 

SCHOOLS  FOR  EDUCATING  TEACHEKS. 

1.  Universities  sustain  Departments  of  Education. — 

Sir  William  Petty,  in  1647,  said,  "  Education  should 
be  seriously  studied,  and  should  be  the  business  of  the 
ablest  and  best  persons."  Herbart,  early  in  the  cen- 
tury, originated  the  movement  to  make  pedagogy  a 
university  study.  As  with  medicine  and  law,  the 
movement  has  slowly  gained  momentum,  and  one  by 
one  the  universities  are  coming  to  place  the  depart- 
ment of  education  side  by  side  with  the  departments 
of  law  and  medicine.  The  course  requires  four  years 
for  its  completion,  but  students  electing  the  profession 
of  teaching  do  the  first  and  second  years'  work  as  a 
4 


34:     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

part  of  their  junior  and  senior  college  courses.  Then 
two  years  are  devoted  to  strictly  professional  work. 
Besides  the  groundwork,  teachers  prepare  for  special 
lines  of  professional  work. 

2.  Colleges  sustain  Chairs   of  Pedagogy.— Since  a 
large  proportion  of  our  college  graduates  elect  teach- 
ing, our  colleges  realize  the  necessity  of  providing  for 
the  professional  education  of  teachers.     College  grad- 
uates are  not  recognised  as  teachers   or  doctors  or 
lawyers.    During  the  junior  and  senior  years  students 
electing  teaching  take  pedagogy  as  a  part  of  the  col- 
lege course.     An  able  educator  in  this  position  works 
wonders  for  the  students  and  for  the  college.     Each 
professor  comes  to  give  annually  a  course  of  lessons 
on  methods  of  teaching  his  specialty.    Graduates  may 
complete  their  professional  education  in  the  university, 
or  may  at  once  become  teachers. 

3.  State  Normal  Schools  educate  Elementary  Teach- 
ers.— Persons  who  apply  for  admission  are  to  have 
strong  bodies  and  active  minds,  and  are  to  be  high- 
school  graduates.     The  course  embraces  three  years' 
work.     Professional  education  enters  into  the  warp 
and  woof  of  all  the  work,  but  much  of  the  very  best 
academic  work  is  done  during  these  years.     Culture 
is  essential  in  teacher  preparation.     It  is  unfortunate 
that  comparatively  few  normal  graduates  ever  enter 
the  college  or  the  university.     All  educational  coun- 
tries now  sustain  normal  schools.     These  schools  give 
us  our  trained  elementary  teachers,  and  each  is  a  cen- 
tre of  educational  life  and  progress.     Of  all  school 
agencies,  our  State  normal  schools  have  done  most  for 
the  elevation  of  our  elementary  schools. 


IMPROVEMENT  OP  THE  TEACHER.      35 

4.  City  Training  Schools  educate  City  Teachers.— 
Our  great  cities  provide  schools  for  training  their 
own  teachers,  and  limit  admission  to  high-school  grad- 
uates.    Our  high  schools  and  academies  in  the  smaller 
towns  find  it  necessary  to  give  some  pedagogical  train- 
ing to  their   graduates   who   elect  teaching.     Many 
high  schools  now  give  their  pupils  practice  in  teach- 
ing in  addition  to  pedagogical  instruction.     The  su- 
perintendent  and  the   high-school   principal   in   our 
towns  often  give  professional  instruction   to  pupils 
who  purpose  teaching.     The  importance   of   special 
preparation  for  teaching  is  thus  emphasized. 

5.  Summer    Normal  Schools  help    all  Teachers.— 
These  are  short-term  normal  schools,  continuing  from 
two  to  eight  weeks.     The  purpose  is  to  assist  as  much 
as  possible  the  great  body  of  untrained  teachers,  and 
afford  professional  teachers  special  opportunities  for 
advancement.     These  schools  supplement  but  do  not 
take  the   place  of  the  regular  professional   schools. 
They  are  doing  a  vast  amount  of  good  work,  and  are 
wonderfully  promoting   educational   progress.      The 
university  summer  normals  afford  rare  opportunities 
for  advanced  work  in  special  lines.    We  have  in  these 
schools  practical  university  extension. 

6.  Thorough  Professional  Preparation  works  Teacher 
as  well  as  Pupil  Good. — Good  positions  await  prepared 
teachers.     Persons  who  make  teaching  a  trade  will 
gradually  disappear  from  our  schools.     All  positions 
will  be  filled  by  trained  teachers.     The  preparation 
for   teaching  demands  even  more  thorough  profes- 
sional education  than  preparation  for  practising  law 
or  medicine.     For  the  advanced  work  in  teaching,  a 


36      SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

four  years'  course  is  not  too  long.  The  teacher  thus 
prepared  will  work  in  the  light  of  all  the  ages.  To 
him  teaching  will  be  truly  the  art  of  promoting  hu- 
man development.  For  elementary  teaching,  the 
three  years'  course  of  our  State  normal  schools  is  not 
too  much.  Only  high-school  graduates  will,  in  the 
near  future,  be  admitted  to  these  schools.  Three 
years  are  devoted  to  broader  culture,  to  pedagogical 
instruction,  and  to  practise  teaching.  During  the 
second  and  third  years  the  normal  pupils  are  grouped 
for  special  lines  of  school  work — for  rural  schools, 
for  kindergarten  work,  for  primary  work,  for  inter- 
mediate work.  Intermediate  teachers  are  prepared 
to  teach  special  studies.  Thus  all  normal  work  be- 
comes fruitful  in  the  highest  degree  because  it  be- 
comes specialized  work. 

7.  Professional  Schools  mean  Educational  Artists. — 
Educational  schools  produce  teachers  skilled  in  the 
art  of  producing  mental  and  moral  growth,  just  as 
medical  schools  produce  physicians  skilled  in  the  art 
of  healing.  The  teaching  art  is  sui  generis.  Other 
artists  create  forms,  but  the  teacher  deals  with  the 
self -forming.  Mind  is  self-acting.  Pupil  self-effort 
educates.  The  pupil  moulds  himself,  forms  himself, 
learns  through  his  own  efforts.  Well-directed  self- 
effort  works  its  miracle  of  growth.  Teaching  is  the 
art  of  stimulating  and  guiding  self -activity.  The  ar- 
tistic teacher  knows  how  to  awaken  effort  and  how  to 
wisely  direct  effort.  The  meaning  of  teachers'  schools 
is  that  gifted  youths,  instructed  and  trained  by  skilled 
educators,  may  through  indomitable  self-effort  become 
educational  artists. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER. 


37 


1.  f  1.  Define 

'     I. 

HIGHER 
EDUCA-  < 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5 

2.  School 
Hygiene. 

TIONAL 

IDEALS. 

6. 

7. 
,   8. 

3.  Home 
Hygiene. 

r   L 

4.  Play 

II. 

2. 
3. 

Hygiene. 

HELP- 

4. 
5. 

FUL     i 

PUPIL 

1 

5.  Hygienic 

STUDY. 

7. 

Ventila- 

. 
fl 

tion. 

1  16! 

6.  Hygienic 

1. 
2. 

Heating. 

3. 

III. 

4. 

TEACH- 

5. 

7.  Hygienic 

ER  bi-   -< 

6. 

Light. 

PROVE- 

7. 

MENT. 

8. 

9. 

8.  Cleanli- 

10. 

ness  and 

11. 

Toilet. 

9.  Hygienic 

School 

Desks. 

IV.      °\ 

BETTER 

SCHOOL   }-  —  - 

HYGI- 

10. Hygi- 

ENE.    J 

enic  Hab- 

its. 

11.  Intereet 
in  School 
Hygiene. 


(  (1)  Hygiene. 

]  (2)  School  hygiene. 

(  (1)  In  the  past. 
\  (2)  In  the  present. 

{(1)  Importance. 
(2)  School  influence. 
(3)  Mother's  society. 
(4)  Lectures  and  literature, 
f  (1)  Play  hygienic. 
'  (2)  Play  educative. 

(3)  Hourly  recess. 

(4)  Open  air  best. 

(5)  Physical  culture. 

(6)  Lunch  and  play. 

(1)  Perfect  ventilation. 

(2)  Poor  ventilation. 

(3)  Window  ventilation. 

(4)  Ventilating  stove. 

(5)  Hourly  recess. 

{(1)  Desideratum. 
(2)  Defective  heating. 
(3)  Systems  of  heating. 
(4)  Open  fireplace. 
^  (5)  Economy  of. 

!(1)  Perfect  lighting. 
(2)  Window  shades. 
(8)  Windows. 
(4)  Favour  the  eyes. 
!(1)  Untidiness. 
(2)  Importance. 
(3)  School  closets. 
(4)  Cloakrooms. 
{(1)  Single  desks. 
(2)  Adjustable  chair  and  desk. 
(3)  Study  desk. 
(4)  Reasonable  adjustment. 
f(l)  Regularity. 

(2)  Cleanliness. 

(3)  Abundant  sleep. 

(4)  Rational  food  habits. 

(5)  Good  clothing  habits. 
(G)  Cheerfulness. 

(7)  Law-abiding  habits, 
f  (1)  Interests  all  men. 

(2)  Personal  equation. 
•i  (3)  Hygienic  skill. 

(4)  Parental  co-operation. 
[(5)  Plygienic  literature. 


38      SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE    PUPIL    THROUGH    THE    ADOPTION 
OF    A    BETTER    SCHOOL    HYGIENE. 

School  Management  is  the  Art  of  bettering  the 
Pupil's  Physical  Condition. — Light,  heat,  fresh  air,  ex- 
ercise, furniture,  books,  school  work,  school  recrea- 
tion, school  government,  school  programmes,  and  pupil 
habits  demand  the  utmost  consideration,  for  they  are 
the  conditions  of  pupil  growth.  The  rational  search 
lights  of  all  the  ages  are  now  turned  in  full  blaze  upon 
the  schoolroom.  u  Give  us  whatever  tends  to  best 
promote  pupil  improvement"  is  now  the  world's 
highest  note. 

Hygiene  is  the  Art  of  Health. — Health,  like  all 
other  good  things,  comes  through  law-abiding.  For- 
tunately, the  laws  of  health  are  few  and  plain.  Good 
parentage,  sunshine  and  fresh  air,  good  food  and 
abundant  sleep,  cleanliness  and  exercise,  cheerfulness 
and  congenial  occupation,  hygienic  habits — these  are 
the  conditions  of  good  health.  For  the  teacher  not 
to  study  hygienic  laws,  and  not  by  example  and  pre- 
cept and  training  to  get  pupils  to  live  them,  is  surely 
criminal. 

School  Hygiene  is  the  Art  of  promoting  the  Phys- 
ical Well-being  of  Pupils  and  Teachers. — Physical  bet- 
terment conditions  spiritual  betterment.  A  self  is 
embodied  in  a  physical  organism  having  physical  en- 
vironments. A  self  acts  best  when  his  body  with  its 
environments  is  in  the  best  condition.  As  the  race 


BETTER  SCHOOL  HYGIENE.         39 

lias  come  to  realize  the  tremendous  importance  of 
physical  culture,  the  wisdom  and  the  resources  of  the 
world  have  been  taxed  more  and  more  in  the  interests 
of  practical  school  hygiene. 

The  Woeful  Neglect  of  School  Hygiene. — Some  good 
day,  we  doubt  not,  the  nations  will  vie  with  each  other 
in  their  efforts  to  secure  the  best  possible  school 
hygiene.  In  the  past  men  studied  brute  hygiene,  but 
seemed  to  have  been  strangely  oblivious  to  the  de- 
mands of  human  hygiene.  Their  barns  were  hygienic 
models,  but  their  schoolhouses  were  execrable.  They 
produced  fine  horses,  while  they  left  their  children  to 
suffer  all  the  evils  of  unhygienic  school  life. 

Even  now,  at  the  dawn  of  the  twentieth  century, 
stable  hygiene  seems  to  be  far  in  advance  of  school 
hygiene,  and  the  beneficent  lessons  of  scientific  school 
sanitation  still  fail  to  benefit  the  masses.  Excellent 
sanitation  in  our  schools  is  still  the  exception.  The 
rule  is  such  wretched  school  sanitation  as  to  practically 
check  the  rapid  increase  of  population. 

Pupil  Good  demands  Better  Home  Hygiene. — This 
must  come  largely  through  the  school.  The  lessons 
in  physical  culture  teach  the  pupils  the  conditions  of 
vigorous  health  and  lead  them  to  form  hygienic 
habits.  Food,  sleep,  pure  air,  cleanliness,  clothing, 
are  carefully  considered.  It  is  marvellous  how  rapidly 
home  life  improves  when  the  school  life  becomes 
practically  hygienic.  The  teacher  studies  to  secure 
home  co-operation,  carefully  guarding  against  creat- 
ing antagonisms.  So  much  of  the  physical  well-being 
of  pupils  is  dependent  on  home  hygiene  that  educa- 
tors do  well  to  give  special  attention  to  the  physical 


40      SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

improvement  of  home  life.  Very  much  may  be  ac- 
complished by  the  monthly  meetings  of  mothers  and 
teachers,  now  becoming  common.  Sensible  lectures 
and  reasonable  hygienic  literature  supplement  the 
work  of  the  school.  Home  hygiene  improves  as 
school  hygiene  grows  better. 

PLAY  AND  GYMNASTICS. 

Play  is  eminently  Hygienic. — Recreation  makes 
possible  the  best  work. 

The  kindergarten,  by  utilizing  play,  has  made  a 
large  contribution  to  the  well-being  of  the  race. 
Work  fatigues,  exhausts  the  brain  cells ;  play  rests, 
recuperates  exhausted  brain  cells.  Play  is  recreation, 
for  it  is  free,  spontaneous  activity.  It  breaks  the 
spell  of  work  and  care.  From  infancy  to  age  play  is 
a  boon  to  all  workers.  A  self  while  taking  recrea- 
tion relaxes  effort  and  roams  fancy  free.  Thus  the 
tired  brain  is  given  time  to  recuperate.  A  student 
who  takes  ten  minutes'  suitable  recreation  each  hour 
will  come  out  ahead  of  the  student  who  without  breaks 
pores  over  his  books  hour  after  hour.  The  men  of 
thought  as  well  as  the  men  of  action  doujble  their 
efficiency  by  taking  regularly  helpful  recreation. 

School  Work  is  Educative  when  Pupils  are  Fresh.— 
Drudgery  hurts,  and  does  not  help.  All  forced  ef- 
fort made  when  the  pupil  is  exhausted  is  injurious. 
Work,  and  then  play,  is  the  divine  plan.  We  may 
easily  quadruple  the  educative  value  of  our  schools  by 
studying  to  keep  pupils  fresh.  Strong  men  find  re- 
creation a  necessity ;  how  much  more  must  immature 
pupils  play  as  well  as  work,  and  thus  grow.  Suitable 


BETTER  SCHOOL  HYGIENE.         41 

school  plays  recreate  but  do  not  exhaust.  He  who 
helps  to  lead  the  school  world  to  play  wisely  deserves 
to  be  crowned  as  a  benefactor. 

A  Eecess  at  the  Close  of  each  Hour  is  the  Perfect 
Economy. — The  hygienic  and  educative  benefits  of  the 
hourly  recess  are  incalculable.  Young  children  soon 
become  fatigued,  and  so  we  make  their  periods  of 
work  very  brief.  The  periods  of  work  are  length- 
ened as  the  pupils  advance.  The  fatigue  limit  is  a 
great  practical  study.  Much  may  be  done  to  keep 
pupils  fresh  by  having  easy  work  follow  difficult 
work.  Change  rests.  The  song  and  the  story  rest. 
But  frequent  periods  of  absolute  freedom  are  indis- 
pensable. In  the  schools  of  the  future,  it  is  believed, 
a  recess  of  ten  minutes  will  be  given  at  the  close  of 
each  hour. 

Play  in  the  Open  Air  is  most  Hygienic. — Suitable 
playgrounds  with  the  best  play-provoking  facilities 
may  safely  be  counted  among  the  most  important 
hygienic  agencies.  All  real  play  is  essentially  free 
and  spontaneous.  Yet  at  no  time  is  wise  supervision 
more  important  than  during  play.  Hurtful  plays 
must  be  discouraged  and  the  most  helpful  plays  fos- 
tered. The  teacher  feels  the  play  impulses,  and  so 
guides  by  suggestion  without  abridging  freedom  and 
spontaneity.  Well-ventilated,  well-lighted,  and  com- 
modious playrooms  for  use  during  inclement  weather 
are  helpful  when  the  supervision  is  judicious.  How- 
ever great  the  cost,  these  playrooms  pay  largely  in  in- 
creased pupil  vigour. 

Lunch  and  Play  occur  together. — Teachers  and  pu- 
pils, during  the  half-hour  noon  recess,  eat  lunch  and 


42     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

indulge  in  light  amusements.  The  playgrounds  are 
used  in  pleasant  weather  and  the  playrooms  in  in- 
clement weather.  This  plan  has  many  advantages, 
and  works  well  when  the  teachers  enter  into  it  heard, 
ly.  The  hygiene  of  school  lunch  for  teachers  and 
pupils  deserves  thoughtful  study.  Probably  the  least 
hygienic  is  the  plan  of  having  pupils  rush  home,  bolt 
a  hearty  meal,  and  rush  back  again.  The  desideratum 
is  suitable  lunch,  eaten  without  haste  and  followed  by 
gentle  play. 

Systematic  Physical  Culture  is  indispensable. — In 
our  best  schools  physical  culture  goes  on  side  by  side 
with  mental  and  moral  culture.  Graded  physical  ex- 
ercises give  pleasure,  gracefulness,  and  vigour.  Dur- 
ing the  pauses  pointed  suggestions  are  given  in  prac- 
tical hygiene.  The  gymnastic  exercises,  when  adapted 
to  the  pupils  and  well  managed,  are  educative  as  well 
as  hygienic.  They  develop  habits  of  exact  obedience, 
train  pupils  to  work  in  harmony  with  others,  and 
give  artistic  command  of  the  body.  Gymnastics  re- 
quire considerable  will  effort,  and  hence  do  not  take 
the  place  of  the  spontaneous  plays  of  the  recess.  The 
Germans  emphasize  systematic  gymnastics,  but  neg- 
lect play  ;  the  English  exalt  play,  but  neglect  sys- 
tematic physical  culture ;  the  Americans  and  the 
French,  after  the  fashion  of  the  Greeks,  emphasize 
both  play  and  gymnastics. 

SCHOOLROOM  VENTILATION. 

Perfect  Ventilation  is  the  Aim. — Pupils  and  teach- 
ers, in  order  to  do  their  best,  must  work  in  pure  air 
at  the  proper  temperature.  Perfect  ventilation  keeps 


BETTER  SCHOOL  HYGIENE.  43 

the  air  within  the  schoolroom  as  pure  as  the  air  with- 
out, and  school  hygiene  seeks  to  approximate  this 
ideal.  Improved  systems  for  ventilating  school  build- 
ings have  accomplished  wonders.  Our  best  buildings 
are  now  fairly  well  ventilated,  but  even  these  await 
immense  improvements. 

Most  Schoolrooms  are  Badly  Ventilated. — The  rule 
is  poor  ventilation,  and  good  ventilation  is  the  excep- 
tion. In  a  vast  majority  of  our  schoolrooms  the  ven- 
tilation is  execrable.  A  father  called  at  the  school- 
room te  see  his  little  daughter.  Afterward  he  said  : 
"  It  makes  me  sick  to  think  of  that  odour  now,  yet  for 
hours  my  child  had  been  breathing  that  poisonous  air. 
The  teacher  did  not  know  that  the  air  was  horrible." 
The  author  could  say  the  same  thing  about  a  thousand 
schoolrooms  which  he  has  visited.  Yet  teacher  and 
pupils,  even  under  these  conditions,  are  expected  to  do 
the  best  work ! 

Abundance  of  Pure  Air  must  be  secured. — To  begin 
with,  all  schoolrooms  must  provide  for  each  pupil  at 
least  twenty-five  square  feet  of  floor  space  and  three 
hundred  cubic  feet,  of  air  space.  For  forty  pupils  a 
schoolroom  thirty  by  forty  by  ten  >  feet  will  meet  the 
conditions,  but  no  schoolroom  should  be  less  than  thir- 
teen feet  high.  Then  the  ventilating  apparatus  must 
provide  for  regular  change  of  air,  so  as  to  afford  for 
each  pupil  each  hour  thirty-five  hundred  cubic  feet  of 
pure  air.  Great  advances  have  been  made,  but  no 
system  of  ventilation  has  proved  fully  satisfactory. 
School  architecture  must  manage  to  make  ventilation, 
heating,  and  lighting  fundamental.  In  some  way  the 
best  must  be  made  effective  in  all  schools.  In  the 


44     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

smaller  and  inexpensive  rural  schoolhouses  the  best 
ventilation  and  heating  is  now  secured  by  having  in 
each  schoolroom  a  small  open  fireplace  and  also  a  ven- 
tilating stove  with  well-constructed  ventilating  flues. 
This  arrangement,  with  judicious  window  ventilation, 
and  by  having  a  recess  of  ten  minutes  each  hour,  se- 
cures reasonably  satisfactory  ventilation.  It  has  the 
advantages  of  being  automatic. 

HEATING  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS. 

Proper  Temperature  conditions  Health  and  Study. — 
School  hygiene  values  the  thermometer  and  requires 
its  constant  use  in  every  schoolroom.  We  study  to 
keep  all  parts  of  the  schoolroom  at  a  uniform  tem- 
perature of  from  sixty  to  seventy  degrees ;  the  stand- 
ard is  sixty-eight  degrees.  This  is  accomplished  rea- 
sonably well  in  small  buildings  with  the  ventilating 
stove,  the  open  fireplace,  the  ventilating  flues,  and 
judicious  window  ventilation.  By  all  means  we  must 
so  manage  that  the  pupils  do  not  suffer  with  cold  feet. 
Steam  heating,  hot-water  heating,  and  hot-air  heating 
are  about  equally  successful  in  giving  reasonable  satis- 
faction. No  system  should  be  tolerated  which  does 
not  furnish  the  heat  by  indirect  radiation.  It  is  not 
pleasant  to  denounce  the  hot  stove  in  the  middle  of 
the  schoolroom,  still  found  in  a  majority  of  our  school- 
houses.  The  arch  enemy  of  school  hygiene  could  not 
easily  have  invented  a  crueler  means  of  torture  or  a 
more  unhygienic  mode  of  heating.  Pupils  near  the 
stove  burn,  while  those  most  distant  almost  freeze,  and 
nearly  all  suffer  with  cold  feet. 


BETTER  SCHOOL   HYGIENE.  45 

Normal  Temperature  is  Economic  as  well  as  Hygi- 
enic.— Teacher  and  pupils  in  a  well-ventilated,  well- 
heated,  well-lighted  schoolroom  do  more  work  and 
better  work  than  would  otherwise  be  possible.  Gov- 
ernment becomes  comparatively  easy.  Interest  and 
attention  are  far  more  readily  secured.  Pupils  are 
bright  and  happy  and  healthy.  Contrast  such  a  school- 
room with  the  stupidity  and  inattention  and  disorder 
in  a  poorly  ventilated,  poorly  heated,  poorly  lighted 
schoolroom.  Every  consideration  urges  parents,  offi- 
cers, and  teachers  to  spare  no  effort  to  secure  the 
necessary  conditions  for  the  best  school  work. 

LIGHT  IN  THE  SCHOOLROOM. 

The  Light  within  the  Schoolroom  should  correspond 
with  the  Light  without. — The  alarming  increase  of  de- 
fective sight  among  pupils  intensifies  the  importance 
of  having  well-lighted  schoolrooms.  It  is  wise  to 
study  Nature.  Ideal  ventilation  secures  as  pure  air 
within  as  without  the  schoolroom.  Ideal  lighting 
equalizes  the  intensity  of  light  without  and  within  the 
schoolroom.  The  nearer  the  light  in  all  parts  of  the 
schoolroom  corresponds  with  the  light  without,  the 
better  for  teacher  and  pupil.  Pupils  go  in  and  out 
without  the  painful  feeling  experienced  when  school- 
rooms are  darkened.  Window  shades  and  blinds  are 
often  made  instruments  of  torture,  and  should  only  be 
used  in  schoolrooms  to  prevent  the  glare  of  sunlight. 
For  this  purpose  Venetian  blinds  with  movable  slats 
are  the  worst  device  known,  and  semi-opaque  shades 
are  the  best. 


40      SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

All  Parts  of  the  Schoolroom  should  be  Well  Lighted. 
—Experts  tell  us  that  there  should  be  no  windows  in 
front  of  the  pupils,  and  that  the  best  lighting  requires 
windows  at  the  pupils'  left  side  only.  But  we  must 
think  of  ventilation  as  well  as  lighting,  and  this  may 
require  windows  on  two  sides  of  the  schoolroom,  the 
left  side  and  at  the  back.  At  the  least,  the  window 
surface  should  equal  one  tenth  of  floor  surface.  No 
schoolroom  should  be  less  than  thirteen  feet  in  height, 
and  the  tops  of  the  windows  should  be  within  a  foot 
of  the  ceiling  and  from  eight  to  ten  feet  in  height. 
As  the  shades  roll  from  the  bottom  of  the  window, 
the  light  falls  first  from  above. 

Pupils  are  trained  to  favour  their  Eyes. — Straining 
injures.  Prolonged  staring  hurts.  We  train  our 
pupils  to  use  their  eyes  gently  and  sparingly.  The 
mind  does  the  hard  work.  The  object  is  observed, 
and  the  pupil  closes  his  eyes  and  pictures  it.  The 
pupil  reads  the  paragraph  once,  and  closes  his  eyes 
and  thinks  it  many  times.  The  pupil  is  trained  to  let 
his  eyes  rest  gently  on  the  printed  page,  while  the 
mind  does  the  work.  How  much  the  judicious  teacher 
can  dp  in  training  pupils  to  save  their  eyes,  not  only 
in  the  schoolroom  but  also  at  their  homes ! 

CLEANLINESS  AND  CONVENIENCES. 

Schoolrooms  must  be  kept  Clean. — Some  travellers 
tell  us  that  everywhere  they  found  our  school  build- 
ings untidy  and  overheated.  As  cleanliness  is  next 
to  godliness,  must  we  not  class  untidy  schoolhouses  as 
tending  to  godlessness?  Many  schoolhouses  which 
have  been  used  for  two  or  three  decades,  they  tell  us, 


BETTER  SCHOOL  HYGIENE.         47 

have  never  been  scrubbed.  Many  schoolrooms  are 
simply  filthy,  and  nothing  is  more  unhygienic  than 
dirt  and  filth.  Every  consideration  demands  school- 
room cleanliness.  Surely  cleanliness  should  extend 
also  to  the  school  grounds. 

The  Civilized  Schoolhouse  Toilet  is  a  Hygienic  De- 
sideratum.— Nothing  in  school  hygiene  demands  more 
thoughtful  consideration.  Everywhere  separate  closets 
are  provided  for  each  sex,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  closets  are 
not  convenient,  are  not  kept  clean,  are  not  hygienic.* 

The  revolutionary  device  of  leaving  pupils  free  to 
visit  the  closets  at  will  is  deemed  of  incalculable  hygi- 
enic value.  Having  pupils  "  ask,"  a  relic  of  ancient 
school  barbarism,  works  exceeding  harm. 

Hygienic  Cloakrooms  help, — We  rarely  find  these 
necessities  entirely  satisfactory.  All  teachers  insist 
that  our  cloakrooms  should  be  well  ventilated,  well 
lighted,  well  heated,  and  convenient.  Are  they  ? 
Are  the  arrangements  such  that  pupils  can  deposit  or 
take  their  wraps  while  passing  in  line?  Teachers, 
you  can  do  more  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world  to  se- 
cure school  cleanliness,  civilized  toilet,  and  hygienic 
cloakrooms.  It  requires  courage  even  to  speak  of 
these  things.  But  the  management  of  these  matters 
is  a  part  of  our  professional  work.  It  is  ours  to  plan 
and  work  for  the  good  of  our  race.  School  boards 
rarely  refuse  to  listen  to  reasonable  suggestions.  A 
lecture  occasionally  on  school  hygiene  does  much  to 
educate  the  people. 

*  The  teacher  should  not  fail  to  read  School  Closets  and  Civi- 
lization, by  Superintendent  A.  P.  Marble. 


48      SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

HYGIENIC  SCHOOL  DESKS. 

Hygienic  school  desks  and  chairs  are  a  school  de- 
sideratum. They  promote  pupil  comfort,  and  thus 
promote  good  order  and  vigorous  study.  They  fa- 
vour hygienic  positions  of  the  body,  and  thus  pro- 
mote health. 

1.  The  Single  Desk  and  Chair  are  Preferable. — The 
double  desk  must  go.     With  single  desks  pupils  have 
more  air  space,  more  freedom,  and  better  facilities 
for  study.     Control  is  much  less  difficult,  and  the 
hygienic  gains  are  considerable.     In  another  decade 
the  single  desk  will,  for  these  and  other  reasons,  be 
used  in  most  schools. 

2.  The  Adjustable  Desk  and  Chair  are  the  Best.— 
Others  are  not  now  permissible.    The  desks  and  chairs 
are  adjusted  to  the  pupil.    The  desk  is  just  low  enough 
to.  allow  the  bent  elbow  to  touch  it  when  the  hand  is 
raised  to  write  without  raising  the  shoulder  or  tilting 
the  trunk.     The  chair  is  low  enough  to  permit  easy 
contact  of  the  whole  sole  of  the  shoe  with  the  floor 
when  the  pupils  sit  well  back  in  the  seat.     A  foot 
rest  is  always  provided.     The  distance  between  the 
back  of  the  chair  and  the  edge  of  the  desk  should 
vary  from  nine  to  thirteen  inches,  according  to  size 
of  pupils.    Such  adjustments  foster  hygienic  positions, 
and   should    be   made   with   great   care.      Inventors 
should  study  simplicity,  so  that  teachers  may  be  able 
to  easily  make  the  adjustments. 

3.  The  Desk  Lid  should  be  Adjustable  for  Study.— 
Some  inventive  genius  will  give  us  a  simple  adjust- 
able desk  lid  that  on  touching  a  spring  will  move  to 


\ 


BETTER  SCHOOL  HYGIENE.         49 

the  proper  angle  for  a  book  rest.  It  must  be  easily 
adjustable  to  each  pupil.  The  distance,  the  angle, 
and  the  light  are  such  that  the  eye  rests  gratefully  on 
the  printed  page.  The  text-book  and  the  dictionary 
rest  on  the  desk  lid  ready  for  use. 

4.  Eeasonable  Adjustment  is  of  High  Value. — The 
old  education  tried  to  fit  the  pupil  to  the  seat  and  the 
desk  ;  the  new  education  seeks  to  fit  the  seat  and  the 
desk  to  the  pupil.  Elaborate  measurements  and  mi- 
nute adjustments  are  not  thought  of.  The  adjustments 
recommended  are  easy,  reasonable,  and  of  great  hy- 
gienic and  educational  value. 

HYGIENIC  HABITS. 

Good  Habits  make  for  Manhood. — They  mean  health 
and  happiness.  Good  habits  lead  to  success.  Teach- 
ers co-operate  with  parents  in  leading  pupils  to  form 
good  hygienic  habits.  Example,  precept,  and  training 
are  the  effective  means.  Pupils  come  to  reverence 
hygienic  laws  as  they  reverence  moral  laws.  The 
habit  of  law-abiding  is  a  great  thing  in  education. 

1.  Regularity  is  a  Fundamental  Hygienic  Habit. — 
Octogenarians  ascribe  their  long  lives  largely  to  the 
habit  of  regularity.  Regularity  in  eating,  in  sleeping, 
in  taking  exercise,  in  studying,  in  bathing,  in  recrea- 
tion, tends  to  promote  physical  vigour  and  success. 
Regular  work  promotes  physical  and  mental  vigour, 
but  irregularity  tends  to  make  invalids.  Spurts  often 
kill.  We  do  a  good  thing  for  our  pupils  when  we 
train  them  to  the  habit  of  regularity  in  attendance 
and  study,  but  we  do  most  for  them  when  we  lead 
them  to  form  the  habit  of  regularity  in  all  things. 
5 


50      SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

2.  Cleanliness  is  a  Humanizing  Hygienic  Habit— 

Savages  are  filthy.  Soap  and  civilization  are  insep- 
arable. Order  may  be  the  first,  but  assuredly  cleanli- 
ness is  Heaven's  second  law.  Bathing  is  scarcely  less 
necessary  than  food.  Regular  bathing,  winter  and 
summer,  greatly  increase  physical  vigour  and  mental 
power.  A  free  use  of  water  is  the  best  of  all  preven- 
tives of  disease.  Filthiness  characterizes  swine  and 
low  people.  Cleanliness  and  neatness  characterize 
refined  people.  Teachers  are  models. 

3.  Sleep   is  Nature's   Sweet   Bestorer. — Abundant 
sleep  is  a  primary  condition    of   health  and   study. 
Every   act   of   mind   or   body   tends   to   exhaustion. 
Sleeping  and  rest  give  the  system  time  to  repair  the 
waste.     He  who  rises  each  morning  as  strong  as  on 
the  previous  day  maintains  his  vigour,  and  he  who 
rises  stronger,  increases  his  vigour.     The  great  stu- 
dents and  great  workers  have  ever  been  good  sleepers. 
Hard  study  hurts  no  one.     Dissipation  and  late  hours 
and  spurts  kill.     The  teacher  co-operates  with  parents 
in  encouraging  pupils  to  take  regular  and  abundant 
sleep.     They  must  grow  as  well  as  learn.     To  keep 
late  hours  is  a  deadly  hygienic  sin.      Sleepiness  in 
the  schoolroom  counts  as  stupidity.     No  pupil  or  stu- 
dent who  takes  abundant  sleep  is  likely  to  break  down 
from  hard  study. 

4.  Eating  Habits  are  Important. — Hygienic  food 
habits  condition  health  and  growth.     Brutes  live  to 
eat,  but  men  eat  to  live.     "What  to  eat,  and  how  much 
to  eat,  and  when  to  eat,  and  how  to  eat,  are  vital  con- 
siderations.    Plain  living  and  high  thinking  go  to- 
gether.    Half  our  pupils  fail  to  do  their  best  because 


^sl^^ 

UNIVERSITY 
BETTER  SCHOOL  ^YGIEXE_ 

^ 

of  bad  eating  habits.  The  teacher,  by  sensible  sug- 
gestions, may  greatly  improve  the  eating  habits  of  his 
pupils.  Stories  from  life  are  often  the  best  hygienic 
lessons. 

5.  Clothing  Habits  deserve  Special  Attention. — The 
principal  hygienic  use  of  clothing  is  to  protect  the 
body   from   heat   and   cold.     Health,   therefore,   de- 
mands that  we  should  consider  the  kind  of  clothing 
and  the  necessary  changes  of  clothing.     Upon  these 
points  the  teacher  will  speak  plainly  and  frequently. 
Boys  as  well  as  girls  are  injured  for  life  by  hurtful 
clothing  habits.     Happily,  our  clothing  reforms  are 
changing  the  worst  clothing  habits.     But  much  work 
along  this  line  will  always  devolve  on  the  true  teacher. 

6.  Cheerful  Habits  promote  Health,  Vigour,  and  Suc- 
cess.— Cheerfulness  is  the  greatest  of   all  hygienic 
agencies.     Those   who   are   always  glad   are  seldom 
sick.     Of  all  places,  home  and  school  should  be  made 
the  most  cheerful.     A  grim,  cold^  repulsive  teacher 
chills  the  child  to  the  bones.     This  grimness  is  not 
confined  to  male  teachers  ;  there  are  many  lady  teach- 
ers who  long  since  forgot  how  to  smile,  at  least  how 
to  smile  in  a  sweet  and  loving  manner.     This  is  dread- 
ful in  a  primary  school.     We  have  one  in  mind  now. 
The  lady  is  tall,  pale,  wears  glasses,  and  never  smiles, 
yet  she  is  one  of  the  noblest  of  women.     Her  pupils 
seem  to  have  copied   her.     They  look  anxious  and 
pale ;  wrinkles  are  on  their  young  brows ;  life  seems 
scarcely  worth  living.     They  become  an  easy  prey  to 
disease  and   death. — This  is  all  wrong.      Education 
comes  from  voluntary  and  glad  effort.     The  teacher 
ought  to  be  happy  and  glad.     She  ought  to  fill  the 


52     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

schoolroom  with  an  atmosphere  of  love  and  a  glow 
of  cheerfulness.  In  such  a  school  disease  will  be  a 
stranger,  and  happiness  and  success  will  abound.  Sun- 
shine is  the  emblem  of  the  best  school  life. 

7.  Habits  of  Law-abiding  Self-control  condition 
Achievement. — The  best  work  of  a  school  is  the  de- 
velopment of  such  habits.  Hurtful  habits  must  not 
be  formed,  and  if  such  habits  have  been  formed 
they  must  be  cured  by  the  formation  of  helpful  habits. 
The  drink  habit  is  destructive.  The  tobacco  habit 
hurts,  and  does  not  help.  Teachers  can  do  most  to 
save  their  pupils  from  these  and  other  ruinous  habits. 
The  great  thing  is  to  develop  the  habit  of  law-abiding 
self-control.  Unlawful  indulgence  of  appetites  and 
passions  is  beastly ;  lawful  self-control  is  manly.  All 
gratifications  that  hurt  and  do  not  help  are  unlawful. 
All  good  and  all  happiness  comes  through  law-abiding. 
Health  conditions  happiness. 

From  the  few  texts  here  presented,  teachers,  it  is 
hoped,  will  work  out  many  practical  lessons.  Other 
topics  of  vast  moment  should  be  studied.  First  of 
all,  to  be  efficient,  each  teacher  must  solve  the  per- 
sonal hygienic  equation.  Then,  we  should  gain  such 
skill  as  will  enable  us  to  test  sight  and  hearing  and 
promote  in  every  way  the  physical  well-being  of  our 
pupils.  So  much  depends  on  the  proper  treatment 
of  pupils  during  the  period  of  puberty  that  careful 
study  is  urged.  The  breaking  up  of  bad  hygienic 
habits  by  the '  formation  of  right  habits  is  of  the 
utmost  importance.  It  is  always  wise  to  secure  pa- 
rental co-operation.  Not  much  can  be  said  in  a  brief 
chapter,  but  these  suggestions  may  awaken  and  deep- 


BETTER  SCHOOL  HYGIENE.  53 

en  interest.  The  literature  of  school  hygiene  is  abun- 
dant, but  teachers  must  work  out  these  problems  for 
themselves.  Books  are  merely  helps. 

BETTER  EDUCATIONAL  CONDITIONS. 

SUGGESTIONS,    STUDY   HINTS,   AND   TOPICS   FOE  DISCUSSION. 

I.  Higher  Educational  Ideals. — Illustrate  what  you  mean  by 
reals  and  ideals.    Give  an  example  of  how  progress  comes.    What 
does  the  school  do  for  the  pupil?    What  is  the  test  of  school 
measures?    What  is  the  law  of  unity?    Describe  school  evolu- 
tion.    Why  do  brutes  and  savages  fail  to  make  progress  ?    Show 
how  looking  back  hurts.     Give  examples  of  how  better  ideals  pro- 
mote progress.     What  lesson  may  we  learn  from  the  serpent? 
Give  what  you  consider  the  chief  value  of  high  pupil  ideals; 
teacher  ideals;  school  ideals.    Describe  your  ideal  school;  your 
ideal  teacher. 

II.  Helpful  Pupil  Study. — What  do  you  consider  the  chief  value 
of  pupil  study?     What  does  Dr.  Butler  say?  Dr.  Hall?  Col. 
Parker?    How  does  it  help  the  teacher?    Tell  the  story  of  child 
neglect.     Give  your  plan  for  infant  study ;  for  child  study ;  for 
boy  and  girl  study.     Why  does  the  teacher  need  to  study  human 
life  in  all  its  stages  ?    Why  should  the  teacher  profoundly  study 
the  pupil  as  a  physical  being  ?  as  a  mental  being  ?  as  a  moral  be- 
ing?   Why  must  the  teacher  know  himself?    Tell  what  Prof. 
Barnes  says  about  methods  of  pupil  study.    Describe  your  method. 

III.  Teacher  Improvement. — As  an  educator,  what  does  the 
teacher  do  ?    Prove  that  teaching  is  a  profession.     Discuss  tenure 
of  office  ;  salary ;  specialization ;  teaching  as  a  career ;  teaching  as 
a  learned  profession.     Why  must  your  ideal  teacher  be  gifted? 
prepared?  devoted?  progressive?    Why  do  all  educational  peo- 
ples establish  and  sustain  schools  for  the  professional  education 
of  teachers  ?    Give  the  work  of  the  department  of  education ;  of 
the  chair  of  pedagogy ;  of  the  State  normal  school ;  of  the  city 
normal  school;  of  the  summer  normal  school.     Prove  that  a 
teacher  needs  a  professional  education  even  more  than  the  physi- 
cian or  the  lawyer.    Show  that  professional  schools  mean  educa- 
tional artists. 


54     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

IV.  Better  School  Hygiene. — What  is  school  hygiene?  Is  its 
neglect  criminal!  Tell  the  story  of  school  sanitation  in  other 
times.  Give  your  plan  for  promoting  home  hygiene  through  the 
school.  Show  that  play  is  both  hygienic  and  educative.  Why 
should  elementary  schools  have  a  recess  at  the  close  of  each  school 
hour?  Name  some  advantages  of  exercise  in  the  open  air;  of 
systematic  physical  culture.  Compare  the  plans  for  physical  cul- 
ture in  England.  Germany,  France,  and  America.  Give  some  ad- 
vantages of  good  ventilation.  Tell  about  the  ventilation  in  most 
schoolrooms.  Describe  your  plan.  Describe  the  ideal  heating  of 
the  schoolroom.  How  may  rural  schoolhouses  best  be  heated! 
What  is  the  normal  temperature?  Why  should  the  light  within 
correspond  with  the  light  without  ?  How  may  teachers  favor  the 
eyes  of  their  pupils?  Show  the  relation  between  cleanliness  and 
health.  Give  five  reasons  for  schoolroom  cleanliness.  Tell  about 
the  civilized  schoolhouse  toilet.  What  is  your  plan  for  hygienic 
cloakrooms!  Describe  the  hygienic  school  desk  and  seat.  Tell 
something  of  the  hygienic  value  of  the  habit  of  regularity;  of 
cleanliness  ;  of  sound  sleep  ;  of  proper  diet ;  of  suitable  clothing ; 
of  law  abiding.  Why  does  school  hygiene  concern  all  men  ? 
What  is  the  teacher's  personal  problem  ?  What  is  meant  by  hygi- 
enic skill  ? 


PART  n. 

PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  BETTER 
EDUCATIONAL  FACILITIES. 


CHAPTER  V. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL 

ENVIRONMENTS. 
VI. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  BETTER  SCHOOL 

APPLIANCES. 
VII. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  HELPFUL  SCHOOL 

APPARATUS. 
VIII. — PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT    THROUGH   IDEAL  SCHOOL 

TEXT-BOOKS. 

IX. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  SUITABLE  SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES. 

55 


V. 

EDUCATIVE 

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IX. 

SUITABLE 

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SCHOOL 

LIBRARIES. 

1.  Environments  and  moral  growth. 

2.  Environments  and  physical  growth. 

3.  Environments  and  mental  growth. 

4.  Environments  and  aesthetic  growth. 

5.  Commodious  and  educative  school  grounds. 

6.  Educative  schoolrooms. 

7.  Ideal  pupil  environments. 

1.  The  schoolroom  more  than  a  workshop. 

2.  Hygienic  conditions  of  efficient  work. 

3.  Electric  programme  clock  and  facilities  for 

movements. 

4.  Physical  comfort  and  effective  work. 

5.  The  teacher's  desk  and  dictionary  holder. 

6.  Revolving  bookcase  and  working  library. 

7.  Working  apparatus  case  and  map  and  chart 

cases. 

8.  Schoolroom  facilities  for  educative  work. 

1.  Educative  value  of  schoolroom  and  school 

grounds. 

2.  Value  of  blackboards  and  school  furniture. 

3.  Helps  in  the  conduct  studies. 

4.  Helps    in    the    language    and    literature 

studies. 

5.  Helps  in  the  science  studies. 

6.  Helps  in  the  mathematics  studies. 

7.  Helps  in  the  art  studies. 

1.  Good  text-books  supplement  oral  instruc- 

tion. 

2.  Text-books  open  the  treasuries  of  human 

experience. 

3.  An  ideal  text-book  is  original,  brief,  clear, 

teachable,  artistic. 

4.  Germany  carries  oral  teaching  to  extremes. 

5.  Proper  use  of  the  printed  page  the  greatest 

of  school  arts. 

6.  Free  text-books  supplied  by  the  depart- 

ment libraries. 

1.  Each  schoolroom  should  have  a  working 

library. 

2.  Each  department — rural,  primary,  interme- 

diate, high  school — should  have  its  de- 
partment library. 

3.  Each  town  and  city  and  college  should 

have  its  general  library. 

4.  The  faculties  of  the  several  departments 

should  manage  their  respective  libraries. 

5.  Each  teacher  should   be  an  assistant  li- 

brarian. 
56 


PAET    SECOND. 

EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL  FACILITIES. 


CHAPTEE  Y. 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    EDUCATIVE     SCHOOL 
ENVIRONMENTS. 

Environments  condition  Growth. — Surroundings  in- 
fluence the  development  of  human  beings  as  well  as 
the  growth  of  plants  and  animals.  To  some  extent 
all  men  appreciate  the  educational  effects  of  environ- 
ments. Thoughtful  parents  make  homes  in  healthy 
districts  and  in  cultured  communities.  The  improve- 
ment of  our  hygienic,  aesthetic,  and  social  environ- 
ments engages  the  best  energies  of  society.  Brutes 
seek  the  most  favourable  environments  for  rearing 
their  young  instinctively,  but  man  in  an  important 
sense  creates  his  environments. 

School  Management  is  the  Art  of  creating  Educative 
School  Environments. — Educators  study  profoundly 
pupil  surroundings  and  spare  no  effort  to  secure  the 
most  favourable  environments.  A  true  teacher  cre- 

57 


58     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

ates  his  ideal  school  location,  his  ideal  school  grounds, 
his  ideal  schoolhouse,  and  his  ideal  school  appliances. 
These  ideals  are  his  working  models,  which  he  ear- 
nestly strives  to  realize. 

FAVOURABLE  LOCATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

1.  Environments  favourable  to  Moral  Growth  the 
Highest  Consideration. — To  secure  moral  vigour  with 
an  environment  of  saloons,  gambling  dens,  and  dance 
houses,  is  more  difficult  than  to  secure  physical  vigour 
amid  the  deadly  miasma  of  the  swamp.     It  is  also  im- 
portant that  the  surroundings  should  be  friendly  to 
culture  and  refinement.    "We  plan  to  place  our  schools 
where  the  environments  now  seem  most  favourable, 
and  we  work  constantly  to  make  the  surroundings 
more  and  more  desirable.     We  should  look  well  to 
locating    our   schools   where    the    environments    are 
most  conducive  to  ethical  culture.     The  teacher  leads 
the  community  to  unite  in  the  constant  endeavour  to 
strengthen  the  moral  influences  surrounding  the  school. 

2.  Commodious  School  Grounds  are  an  Educative  Ne- 
cessity.— Pupils  have  an  inalienable  right  to  enough 
of  the  earth's  surface  to  make  possible  their  healthy, 
vigorous,  and  happy  growth.    In  cities  the  effort  now 
is  to  secure  the  largest  possible  school  grounds,  almost 
regardless  of  cost.     Tillages  and  rural  districts  are 
now  consecrating  to  pupil  culture  commodious  school 
grounds.    Our  higher  institutions  everywhere  demand 
large  grounds. 

3.  Sanitary  Considerations  must  have  Great  Weight 
in  the  Selection  of  School  Grounds. — The  nature  of  the 
soil,  the  drainage,  remoteness  from  marshy  grounds 


EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL  ENVIRONMENTS. 


59 


and  stagnant  waters,  the  elevation  and  exposure,  are 
some  of  the  matters  to  be  investigated.  School 
grounds  must  first  of  all  be  healthy.  In  Ontario,  of 
four  thousand  sites  recently  officially  examined,  only 
eighty  were  considered  excellent  sanitary  school  sites. 
Is  this  proportion  the  rule  ?  When  hygienic  grounds 
are  available,  it  is  surely  criminal  to  select  unhealthy 
school  grounds.  Think  of  it :  generations  of  pupils 
will  be  helped  or  hurt  by  the  selection. 

4.  JSsthetic  Environments  educate. — School  grounds 
should  be  object  lessons  of  beauty,  in  order  to  foster 
refinement  and  make  pupils  happy.  Natural  beauty 


The  Country  Si 


should  be  considered  in  selecting  school  grounds,  but 
grounds  naturally  unattractive  may  be  made  beautiful 
by  art.  Beautifying  the  school  grounds  is  educative. 
The  teacher  leads  and  interests  all  the  pupils  in  the 
work.  Pupils  are  trained  to  help  make  the  grounds 
beautiful  and  to  help  to  keep  them  beautiful.  The 
reflex  influence  on  the  homes  is  of  great  value. 


60     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

The  utter  disregard  of  beauty  in  school  environ- 
ments was  the  rule  in  the  near  past.  This  is  repre- 
sented true  to  life  in  the  sketch  of  a  country  school- 
house.  Such  school  surroundings,  common  even  a 
quarter  of  a  century  ago,  are  fortunately  now  becom- 
ing comparatively  rare.  Teacher,  contrast  with  this 
primitive  scene  some  of  the  beautiful  school  grounds 
you  have  observed.  Create  your  ideal  school  grounds 
and  begin  to  work  up  to  your  ideal. 

5.  Environments  should  be  Play-inviting. — All  pu- 
pils  must  play   as   well   as   study.     School  grounds 
should  be  so  well  planned  as  to  foster  play.     Besides 
the  common  playgrounds,  there  are  decided  advan- 
tages in  having  separate  playgrounds  for  the  sexes. 
Girls  equally  with  the  boys  need  regular  invigorating 
exercise  in  the  open  air.     Playgrounds  should  be  sup- 
plied with  such  equipments  for  systematic  exercises 
as  tend  to  promote  gracefulness  and  vigour. 

6.  School  Grounds  should  be  made  Educative. — The 
geography  plot  represents  divisions  of  land  and  water. 
The    botanical    plot    represents   plant   growth.     The 
arboretum    represents   kinds   of    trees.      The    small 
aquarium  represents  aquatic  life.     The  school  grounds 
are  thus  made  to  teach  fundamental  object  lessons. 
All  the  environments  are  made  educative.    The  school- 
house,  in  its  external  appearance,  teaches  lessons  in 
architecture. 

EDUCATIVE  SCHOOLHOUSES. 

1.  The  Schoolhouse  is  Central  in  School  Life. — The 

environments  now  literally  shut  in  the  child.     The 
pupil  spends  his  hours  in  the  schoolroom  and  only  his 


EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL  ENVIRONMENTS.  61 

minutes  on  the  school  grounds.  The  schoolroom 
with  its  contents  deeply  impresses  the  life  of  the 
child.  ISTo  one  knows  how  much  these  close  and  con- 
stant environments  influence  the  lives  of  pupils.  It 
is  safe  to  do  our  utmost  to  make  these  environments 
the  best  possible. 

2.  The  Evolution  of  the  Schoolhouse  is  a  Fascinating 
Story. — It  is  full  of  interest  to  teacher,  pupil,  and 
parent.  School  architecture  fitly  represents  stages  of 
educational  progress.  The  schoolhouse  with  its  en- 
vironments may  be 
taken  as  a  symbol 
of  the  culture  of  a 
community.  The 
old  log  house  with 
its  huge  fireplace, 
its  puncheon  floor, 
its  clapboard  roof, 
its  greased  paper 
windows,  and  its 
backless  slab  seats 
stands  for  pioneer 
education.  Mar- 

,,  ,  ,  The  Old  Log  Schoolhouse. 

vellous    has    been 

the  transition  from  these  rude  structures  to  our  beauti- 
ful rural  schoolhouses  and  our  attractive  village 
school  buildings  and  the  educational  places  of  our 
cities.  Not  the  courthouse,  not  the  city  hall,  not  even 
the  church  is  so  attractive  as  the  schoolhouse.  Even 
the  country  schoolhouse  is  becoming  a  thing  of  beauty. 
But,  as  the  immediate  environment  of  our  pupils,  are 
our  schoolhouses  of  to-day  to  be  unconditionally  com- 


62     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

mended  ?  Do  they  exert  the  best  silent,  unconscious 
influence  for  uplifting  the  pupils  ?  How  may  we 
constantly  increase  the  education  value  of  our  school- 
rooms ? 

3.  The  Teacher  plans  the  Ideal  Pupil  Environments. 
— You  first  create  your  ideal  school  and  then  go  to 
work  to  realize  it.     The  house  is  for  the  school,  and 
not  the  school  for  the  house.     You  build  the  school- 
house  around  your  ideal  school.     Ours  is  the  age  of 
specialists.     School    architects    now    study    to    plan 
school  buildings  from  the  standpoint  of  the  schools. 
The  educator   contributes  the  ideal  school  with  its 
ideal  environments ;  the  architect  literally  erects  the 
building  around  the  school.     He  studies  to  secure  at 
the  least  cost  the  best  hygienic  conditions,  the  best 
educational  conditions,  and,  withal,  the  highest  beauty. 
The  teacher  and  school  architect  co-operate  to  actual- 
ize the  ideal  schoolhouse. 

4.  An  Unfit  School  Building  is  a  Monument  of  Folly. 
— Most  school  buildings  planned  by  common  carpen- 
ters, or  by  common  architects,  or  by  school  boards 
are  such  monuments.     They  are  usually  unsightly,  un- 
comfortable, unhygienic,  poorly  located,  poorly  lighted, 
poorly  ventilated,  poorly  heated,  and  poorly  adapted 
to  school  work.     Business  school  boards  employ  the 
very  best  educators  and  the  very  best  school  archi- 
tects  to   plan    and    build   their   schoolhouses.     Such 
buildings  are  monuments  of  wisdom,  and  are  the  fit 
environments  of  our  precious  pupils. 

5.  The  School  Home  of  the  Young  should  be  elevat- 
ing.— All  agree  that  the  schoolroom  should  be  a  thing 
of  beauty  as  well  as  utility.     Tinted  walls,  classic  pic- 


BETTER  SCHOOL  APPLIANCES.  63 

tures,  flowers,  a  singing  bird,  a  lifelike  cast  or  two,  beau- 
tiful and  fitting  furniture,  floods  of  light,  delicious 
warmth,  pure  air,  cleanliness,  neatness,  cheerfulness, 
make  our  pupils  glad  and  awaken  their  activities. 
The  teacher  daily  works  such  transformations  as  keep 
the  schoolroom  fresh  and  new.  Such  a  schoolroom  is 
indeed  ideal,  but  in  every  land  we  now  find  real  school- 
rooms surpassing  this  ideal,  but,  alas  !  they  are  the  ex- 
ceptions. The  average  schoolroom  is  a  cheerless  thing. 
You  have  endured  it,  and  you  can  transform  it. 

6.  Better  School  Environments  must  come. — We  are 
hopeful,  for  great  advances  have  been  made ;  but  our 
school  environments  are  still  largely  semibarbarian. 
The  saloon  and  the  school  go  on  side  by  side.  The 
environments  of  our  fine  horses  are  still  vastly  better 
than  the  environments  of  a  majority  of  our  pupils. 
"Women  as  members  of  our  school  boards  are  quietly 
working  beneficent  changes.  Art  in  our  schools  is  si- 
lently transforming  school  environments,  but  the  great- 
est of  all  influences  is  that  of  our  earnest  teachers. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PUPIL   IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    BETTER    SCHOOL 
APPLIANCES. 

The  Schoolroom  is  a  Miniature  World. — It  is  infi- 
nitely more  than  a  workshop,  for  here  the  young  are 
led  to  prepare  themselves  for  complete  living.  Here 
the  pupils  develop  bodily  vigour,  mental  power,  and 


64:     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

moral  worth.  We  have  studied  the  schoolroom  as  a 
hygienic  home  and  as  a  fitting  environment  for  young 
immortals.  We  will  now  study  the  schoolroom  as  a 
place  for  educative  school  work.  Progress  comes 
through  improved  appliances.  Even  with  crude  im- 
plements the  master  workman  can  do  great  things, 
but  with  better  instrumentalities  he  can  accomplish 
vastly  greater  things. 

We  must  secure  the  Best  Hygienic  Conditions. — 
Only  thus  can  we  make  efficient  school  work  possible. 
It  is  well  to  reiterate  again  and  again  these  condi- 
tions. We  study  to  secure  perfect  ventilation  ;  pupils 
have  an  inalienable  right  to  breathe  pure  air.  We 
study  to  secure  perfect  heating  by  keeping  the  tem- 
perature normal  and  uniform  throughout  the  room. 
We  study  to  secure  perfect  light  by  having  the  light 
in  all  parts  of  the  schoolroom  as  nearly  as  possible 
uniform  and  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  inten- 
sity as  the  light  outside.  Such  conditions  are  large 
factors  in  good  school  work,  as  they  make  pupil  im- 
provement possible. 

We  must  provide  Facilities  for  Movements. — We 
plan  our  school  buildings  to  favour  the  quick  and 
orderly  movements  of  the  pupils.  Aisles,  doors,  halls, 
stairways,  cloakrooms,  are  so  planned  as  to  facilitate 
speedy  ingress  and  egress.  We  find  some  buildings 
so  admirably  planned  that  a  thousand  pupils  are  as- 
sembled or  dismissed  in  from  two  to  three  minutes. 
In  case  of  fire  there  is  no  panic.  The  hourly  recess 
occasions  no  loss  of  time.  Changes  of  classes  are 
made  quietly  and  quickly.  The  average  schoolhouse 
must  be  reconstructed  in  view  of  pupil  movements. 


BETTER  SCHOOL  APPLIANCES.        65 

It  impresses  us  more  and  more  that  the  practical 
teacher  must  plan  the  schoolhouse  in  view  of  the 
school  and  the  school  work. 

The  Electric  Programme  Clock  must  signal  Move- 
ments.*— We  thus  secure  perfect  regularity,  and  at  the 
same  time  save  all  our  energies  for  educative  work. 
The  clock  assembles  and  dismisses  the  school  and  calls 
and  dismisses  classes.  It  signals  any  number  of  pro- 
grammes and  regulates  an  entire  school  of  many  de- 
partments. The  programme  clock  is  a  beneficent 
device.  The  relief  of  teachers  is  very  great,  and  it 
gives  larger  liberty  to  the  pupils.  Pupils  soon  learn 
orderly  self-control.  We  find  it  safe  to  leave  them 
free  during  all  movements.  After  a  time  we  may 
safely  discontinue  the  line  formations  on  the  grounds. 
Pupils  are  trusted  to  assemble  orderly  and  to  conduct 
themselves  worthily. 

Pupils  must  be  made  comfortable. — That  we  may 
secure  interest  and  attention  and  effective  study,  we 
must  manage  to  secure  physical  comfort.  This  very 
largely  is  attained  by  suitable  seats  and  desks.  Some 
of  us  have  watched  with  intense  interest  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  school  desk.  The  transition  from  the 
backless  slab  seats  and  the  barbarous  slab  desks  of 
the  old  log  schoolhouse  to  the  adjustable  desks  and 


*  The  author  a  third  of  a  century  ago  devised  an  electric  sig- 
nalling apparatus  which  he  used  for  ten  years  before  it  was  im- 
proved and  patented  by  a  friend.  So  far  as  known,  this  was  the 
first  school  in  which  movements  were  signalled  by  a  clock.  Great 
improvements  have  been  made.  Fred  Frick,  of  Waynesborough, 
Pa.,  now  supplies  an  excellent  electric  programme  signalling  ap- 
paratus. 


66     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

chairs  of  our  times  is  one  of  the  signs  of  progress. 
Our  study  for  decades  was  to  adjust  the  pupils  to 
crude  and  uncomfortable  seats  and  desks — veritable 
instruments  of  torture.  The  adjustable  single  desk 
and  adjustable  chair  mark  an  epoch  in  school  life. 
We  now  adjust  the  desk  and  the  seat  to  the  pupil. 
Elsewhere  the  hygienic  gain  is  discussed.  Here  we 
think  of  the  educational  advantages.  Pupil  energy 
is  conserved.  Interested  attention  and  efficient  study 
and  good  conduct  are  more  easily  secured.  The  desk 
is  the  pupil's  workshop,  laboratory,  office,  library,  and 
studio ;  and  he  is  trained  to  keep  it  in  the  best  condi- 
tion for  work. 

TEACHER'S   SCHOOLROOM   OUTFIT. 

1.  The  Desk  symbolizes  the  Teaching  Profession. — 

Theology  has  its  pulpit,  law  its  bar,  trade  its  counter, 
and  teaching  its  desk.  The  story  of  the  evolution  of 
the  teacher's  desk  deserves  a  place  in  literature.  We 
associate  the  old  schoolmaster  with  a  rough  table,  al- 
ways rickety.  Since  his  day  great  improvements 
have  been  made,  and  the  teacher's  desk  is  now  a 
thing  of  beauty  and  utility.  The  desk  is  the  teacher's 
headquarters,  and  is  the  first  thing  considered  in  fit- 
ting up  a  schoolroom.  Everything  else  is  arranged 
in  view  of  the  teacher's  desk. 

2.  The  Dictionary  Holder  is  important. — The  open 
dictionary  is  so  placed  as  to  be  conveniently  used  by 
teacher  and   pupils.      The   teacher  must  always  be 
ready  to  devise  helpful  things.      The  common  dic- 
tionary holder  with  a  jointed  arm  instead  of  stand, 
attached  to  the  teacher's  desk,  is  an  admirable  device. 


BETTER  SCHOOL  APPLIANCES.        67 

By  a  slight  movement  it  is  placed  ready  for  use  by 
teacher  or  pupils.  At  the  present  time  "Webster's  In- 
ternational and  The  Standard  are  counted  the  best 
school  dictionaries.  A  good  dictionary,  so  placed  as 
to  invite  constant  use,  is  a  schoolroom  necessity. 

3.  The  Revolving  Bookcase  for  the  Working  Library 
helps. — Each  teacher  should  have  a  working  library. 
A  revolving  bookcase  with  one  hundred  suitable  vol- 
umes is  a  schoolroom  treasure.     The  revolving  book- 
case should  be  so  placed  that  the  teacher   without 
rising  may  reach  any  volume  in  it.     It  should  also  be 
easy  of  access  to  the  pupils.     After  considerable  ex- 
perimenting the  plan  here  suggested  is  recommended. 
It  seems  to  be  the  fitting  device. 

4.  The  Apparatus  Case  for  the  Working  Apparatus 
should  be  convenient. — Its  place  seems  to  be  against 
the  wall,  on  the  end  of  the  teacher's  platform.     In 
this  are  kept  the  appliances  most  helpful  in  teaching. 
The  case   need  not  be  large,  as  it  is  meant  for  the 
working  apparatus.     Each  school  must  have  its  ap- 
propriate case.     Some   ingenuity  is  needed   to    con- 
struct these  cases  so  as  to  secure  beauty  and  utility. 
In  schoolrooms  thus  arranged  we  find  the  apparatus 
is  used  many  times  where  it  is  used  once  when  placed 
in  another  room.      Proximity  counts   for   much   in 
education  as  well  as  in  love. 

5.  The  Map  and  Chart  Cases  are  placed  above  the 
Platform. — All  are  hung  on  spring  rollers.    The  teacher 
studies  to  have  these  cases  convenient  and  so  placed 
that  the  maps  and  charts  can  best  be  seen  by  the  pupils. 
Stupid  teachers  refuse  to  think  and  devise,  and  hence 
they  make  their  work  hard  and  themselves  ridiculous. 


68     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

It  seems  so  easy,  with  our  modern  school  devices,  to 
arrange  maps  and  charts  for  convenient  use,  that  we 
are  astonished  to  see  such  inexcusable  neglect  even  in 
many  otherwise  good  schools. 

SCHOOLROOM  FACILITIES  FOR  EDUCATIVE  WORK. 

We  do  well  to  study  some  devices  from  various 
standpoints.  The  blackboard  easily  stands  first  among 
our  teaching  facilities.  In  good  teaching  blackboards 
are  used  continually.  It  is  certainly  worth  while  to 
study  the  blackboard  problem. 

Pictures  in  the  schoolroom  are  educative  helps. 
AVhen  we  visit  our  beautiful  schoolrooms  and  feast 
our  eyes  on  the  artistic  pictures,  we  never  cease  to  re- 
gret the  blank  and  dingy  walls  of  the  old  schoolhouse 
of  other  days.  Next  to  objects,  pictures  are  mo&t 
helpful  in  school  work.  Good  pictures  give  delight 
as  well  as  culture.  Portraits  of  representative  men 
and  women  aid  in  conduct  studies  and  in  literature. 
Pictures  full  of  taste  and  story  assist  in  art  and  lan- 
guage studies  and  history.  In  Nature  studies  appro- 
priate pictures  are  also  valuable.  The  ideal  school- 
room, from  the  the  kindergarten  to  the  university,  is 
rich  in  helpful  pictures. 

The  director  of  fine  arts  in  Pratt  Institute,  Brook- 
lyn, W.  S.  Perry,  well  says  :  "Art  education  has  an- 
other field  of  work  besides  direct  instruction  in  draw- 
ing ;  that  is,  the  building,  furnishing,  and  decorating 
of  schoolhouses.  This  phase  of  the  art  educational 
movement  ought  also  to  be  brought  much  more  widely 
and  forcibly  to  the  attention  of  the  public.  School 
buildings,  grounds,  and  furnishings  should  serve  ar- 


HELPFUL  SCHOOL  APPARATUS.  69 

tistic  as  well  as  economic  and  hygienic  ends.  They 
should  be  constant  object  lessons  in  art  for  the  inspi- 
ration of  the  children  who  are  to  shape  the  coming 
civilization.  They  can  and  should  be  made  a  positive, 
definite  help  in  refining  the  manners,  cultivating  the 
imagination,  and  quickening  the  whole  spiritual  life. 
Co-operation  in  the  work  of  improving  school  archi- 
tecture and  decoration  should  be  solicited  from  the 
public,  for  whose  good  the  schools  themselves  exist,  but 
authoritative  direction  of  the  movement  should  be  in 
the  hands  of  experts  in  art  and  education." 


CHAPTEE  VII. 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT    THROUGH    HELPFUL    SCHOOL 
APPARATUS. 

SCHOOL  appliances  embrace  all  school  instrumen- 
talities used  in  illustrating  and  explaining.  Tools  are 
not  more  important  to  the  mechanic  than  school  appa- 
ratus to  the  teacher.  The  good  teacher  is  skilful  in 
the  use  of  apparatus,  and  suitable  appliances  almost 
double  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher.  We  think  of  all 
helpful  educative  devices  and  materials  as  in  a  sense 
school  appliances.  We  here  use  the  expression  in 
this  broad  meaning  to  include  school  grounds,  school 
buildings,  school  furniture,  school  apparatus,  and 
school  laboratories,  in  so  far  as  they  are  used  as  edu- 
cational appliances. 


70  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

1.  School    Grounds    have    Remarkable     Educative 
Possibilities. — First    of   all,    we   so   plan   our    school 
grounds  as  to   promote  physical  culture,  and  we  se- 
cure the  best  hygienic  and  play-provoking  appliances. 
Next,  we  so  develop  our  school  grounds  as  to  pro- 
mote  aesthetic    culture.     "Winding    walks,   flowering 
shrubs,  trees,  birds,  grass  and  flower  plots,  made  and 
kept   beautiful   by  the  pupils,  do  much  to  cultivate 
taste.     Then  we  fit  up  our  school  grounds  to  promote 
intellectual  culture.     Our  mathematics  grounds,  our 
geography  grounds,  our  biology  grounds,  all  prepared 
by  the  pupils,  are  helpful.     The  school  grounds  have 
great  educative  possibilities,  and  inventive  teachers 
study  to  render  them  of  the  utmost  value  by  making 
them  a  miniature  world. 

2.  The  Schoolroom  itself  is  the  most  Helpful  of  all 
Appliances. — It  is  so  constructed  and  furnished  as  to 
promote  physical  and  aesthetic  culture.     Teacher  and 
pupils  here  find  the  means  and  facilities  for  illustra- 
ting form,    direction,  areas,   and   a   thousand   other 
things.     Jesus  drew  most  of  his  illustrations  from  the 
immediate  environments  and  from  the  lives  of  the 
people.     So  will  efficient  teachers.     We  learn  to  look 
upon  our  schoolrooms,  our  school  grounds,  our  neigh- 
bourhoods, and  the  home  and  school  life  of  our  pupils 
as  our  working  educative  laboratory. 

3.  The  Blackboard  is  used  in  all  Good  Teaching. — 
The  teacher's  board   can   be  seen  by  all  the  pupils. 
For  convenience  it  is  arranged  in  three  sections,  hung 
with  weights  so  as  to  be  raised  or  lowered  by  a  touch 
of  the  hand.     This  device  saves  much  labour.     It  is 
good   economy  to  provide  abundant  blackboard  sur- 


HELPFUL  SCHOOL  APPARATUS.  71 

face.  The  width  and  the  height  of  the  boards  must 
depend  upon  the  class  of  pupils.  As  to  material, 
natural  slate  is  the  best  and  ultimately  the  cheapest. 
Liquid  slating  gives  good  satisfaction.  Slated  paper 
and  slated  cloth  are  often  convenient.  The  board 
surface  should  be  slightly  tilted  (about  six  inches) 
back  from  the  perpendicular,  so  as  to  prevent  the  re- 
flection of  light  from  the  windows  striking  the  pupils' 
eyes.  The  wainscoting  should  extend  up  to  the  board. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  board  should  be  securely  fas- 
tened a  trough  three  inches  wide  and  one  inch  deep, 
and  this  trough  should  be  covered  with  wire  gauze. 
This  arrangement  forms  a  dust  trap,  which  secures  a 
remarkable  relief  from  crayon  dust,  and  is  probably 
the  most  satisfactory  and  convenient  device  now  avail- 
able. The  skilful  teacher  will  make  large  use  of  the 
blackboard  with  all  grades  of  pupils.  Fortunate  the 
pupils  whose  teacher  has  his  knowledge  at  the  end  of 
his  crayon  as  well  as  at  the  end  of  his  tongue ! 

4.  Conduct   Studies  require   Helpful  Appliances. — 
Portraits  of  illustrious  men  and  women  take  the  first 
place.     Each  school  may  now  have  a  few  plaster  busts 
of  great  personages.     Good  books  take  the  highest 
rank.     Historic  charts  and  maps  and  the  slated  globe 
are  essential  helps  in  teaching  history,  the  leading  con- 
duct study.     In  conduct  lessons  life  is  the  laboratory, 
and  the  use  of  appliances  is  limited.     Society;  the 
knowing,  feeling,  doing  self ;  history,  and  literature 
are  the  chief  educative  appliances  in  developing  char- 
acter. 

5.  Language-Literature    Studies     require    Suitable 
Helps. — The  kindergarten  leads  the  little  ones  to  live 


72     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

language  and  literature.  The  plays  and  songs  and 
stories  and  memory  gems  express  the  inner  lives  of 
the  infants.  All  the  environments  and  appliances  are 
kindergarten  helps  in  teaching  language  and  litera- 
ture. In  the  primary  the  best  appliances  are  needed 
in  training  the  children  to  speak  and  read  and  write 
our  language  and  enjoy  our  child  literature.  Envi- 
ronments and  all  appliances  and  all  the  other  studies 
are  helps  in  this  work.  We  need  for  the  beginners 
pictures  and  reading  charts,  and  suitable  readers  and 
supplementary  readers.  Dictionaries,  encyclopaedias, 
and  the  language-literature  libraries  become  the  chief 
appliances  as  the  pupils  advance.  Charts  and  maps 
and  portraits  are  always  helpful. 

6.  Science  Studies  call  for  Extended  Facilities. — As 
no  text-books  are  used  in  Nature  studies  in  our  ele- 
mentary schools,  we  require  abundant  illustrative  ma- 
terial and  some  apparatus.  Each  school  should  have 
small  typical  collections  adapted  to  its  locality.  The 
teacher  and  the  pupils  will  extend  these  collections, 
and  each  pupil  will  be  led  to  make  his  own  collections. 
Charts  and  pictures  and  microscopes  are  invaluable  aids. 

Geography  must  always  rank  as  the  central  study 
in  the  elementary  science  group.  In  this  study  en- 
vironments are  the  most  helpful.  A  slated  globe,  a 
tellurian  globe,  relief  maps,  and  outline  maps  are 
essentials.  The  pupils  will  model  the  geography 
grounds  under  the  teacher's  directions.  Boards  for 
map  moulding  can  be  made  as  needed.  Suitable  books 
of  travel  and  adventure  from  the  library  assist  greatly. 
Simple  apparatus  enables  the  teacher  to  give  profit- 
ably easy  lessons  in  physics  and  chemistry. 


HELPFUL  SCHOOL  APPARATUS.  73 

When  our  intermediate  schools  become  specialized 
the  science  rooms  will  be  fitted  up  for  teaching  the 
sciences.  The  teacher  will  be  a  specialist  in  science 
and  will  greatly  extend  and  enrich  the  course.  Most 
of  our  high  schools  have  reached  this  stage  of  de- 
velopment, but  our  grammar  schools  still  linger  in 
the  border  land.  The  science  teacher  commands  the 
necessary  appliances  and  the  pupils  do  more  and  more 
laboratory  work.  In  most  of  our  city  high  schools 
we  now  find  biological,  geological,  physical,  and  chem- 
ical laboratories.  Modern  colleges  and  universities 
give  great  prominence  to  the  laboratories  and  to  labor- 
atory methods. 

7.  Mathematical  Studies  call  for  the  Best  Aids. — 
Through  a  knowledge  of  things  in  space  and  time  the 
pupil  comes  to  get  a  knowledge  of  form  and  number. 
Form  and  number  must  be  taught  the  children  con- 
cretely. Every  step  must  first  be  taken  objectively. 
Geometrical  forms,  bundles  of  sticks,  the  numeral 
frame,  weights  and  measures,  are  the  most  helpful. 
No  elementary  school  should  be  without  a  set  of  the 
metric  as  well  as  the  common  weights  and  measures. 
Since  ten  is  the  base  of  our  system  of  notations,  the 
metric  weights  and  measures  can  be  used  with  great 
advantage.  The  metric  system  may  be  taught  side  by 
side  with  our  common  system,  and  thus  the  way  may 
be  prepared  for  its  universal  use.  The  aim  in  concrete 
geometry  and  in  elementary  arithmetic  is  to  find  out 
rather  than  to  prove,  and  hence  the  work  is  objective 
and  practical.  Simple  instruments  for  measurement  are 
of  great  value.  In  the  high  school  the  outfit  for  teaching 
and  learning  mathematics  is  extended  to  suit  the  work. 


74:     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

8.  Art  Studies  require  Good  Facilities. — Most  schools 
now  have  music  charts  and  writing  charts.  All  should 
have  materials  and  models  for  teaching  drawing.  We 
can  afford  to  be  liberal  in  supplying  our  school  grounds 
and  school  gymnasiums  and  schoolrooms  with  appli- 
ances for  physical  culture.  For  manual  training  we 
must  at  first  be  content  with  meagre  outfits.  As  the 
work  goes  on  and  as  the  interest  increases  we  can 
readily  secure  the  necessary  facilities. 

Practical  Suggestions. — Teachers  and  school  boards 
do  well  to  consider  carefully  the  problems  of  school 
apparatus. 

1.  Purchase  only  from  reliable  dealers.    Thus  you 
will  guard  against  frauds  and  secure  the  best  articles 
on  reasonable  terms. 

2.  Purchase  apparatus  as  needed.     This  will  pre- 
vent cumbering  your  schools  with  useless  appliances. 
The  schoolroom  is  no  place  for  rubbish. 

3.  Secure  some  helps  for  each  of  the  five  study 
groups.     To  exhaust  the  funds  for  science  apparatus 
is  a  serious  educational  blunder.     Each  study  has  its 
claims.     Conduct    lessons    demand    portraits,    maps, 
charts,  books.    Primary  reading  demands  objects,  pic- 
tures, charts,  books.     Geography  demands  geography 
grounds,  geography  boards,  geography  cards,  globes, 
maps,  books.     Arithmetic  demands  objects,  numeral 
frame,  weights,  measures.     Art  demands  tools,  pic- 
tures, models.     But  it  is  needless  to  specify.     Inven- 
tion is  giving  us  unlimited  helps.     The   competent 
teacher  will   select   the   most  helpful  apparatus  for 
each  study. 

4.  Make  some  of  your  apparatus.     Many  of  the 


IDEAL  SCHOOL  TEXT-BOOKS.  75 

most  helpful  appliances  are  often  those  things  made 
by  the  teacher  and  the  pupils.  As  manual  training 
advances  this  becomes  easy. 


CHAPTER  YIIL 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    IDEAL    SCHOOL   TEXT- 
BOOKS. 

Books  are  our  Best  Helps. — Treasured  knowledge  is 
found  in  books.  He  who  has  mastered  the  secrets  of 
gaining  knowledge  from  books  may  be  considered  in- 
dependent of  the  living  teacher — fit  to  graduate.  To 
develop  this  power  is  the  work  of  the  school.  By  a 
school  text-book  is  meant  a  book  that  forms  the  basis 
of  regular  class  work.  We  have  text-books  for  teach- 
ers, but  ordinarily  we  think  of  text-books  as  books 
used  by  pupils  in  connection  with  the  instruction 
given  by  the  teacher.  Good  text-books,  next  to  the 
living  teacher,  are  the  best  school  helps ;  and  the 
student  is  far  more  dependent  on  his  books  for  in- 
formation than  upon  his  teachers. 

Text-Books  open  the  Treasures  of  Human  Experience. 
— "  One  great  object  of  the  school  in  our  time  is  to 
teach  the  pupil  how  to  use  books — how  to  get  out  for 
himself  what  there  is  for  him  in  the  printed  page. 
The  man  who  can  not  use  books  in  our  day  has  not 
learned  the  lesson  of  self-help,  and  the  wisdom  of  the 
race  is  not  likely  to  become  his.  He  will  not  find,  in 
this  busy  age,  people  who  can  afford  to  stop  and  tell 


76     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

him  by  oral  instruction  what  he  ought  to  be  able  to 
find  out  for  himself  by  the  use  of  the  library. 

"  Oral  instruction,  except  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  text- 
book— except  as  an  incitement  to  the  pupil's  interest 
and  a  guide  to  his  self-activity  and  independent  inves- 
tigation in  the  preparation  of  his  next  lesson — is  a 
great  waste  of  the  teacher's  energy  and  an  injury  to 
the  pupil.  The  pupil  acquires  a  habit  of  expecting  to 
be  amused  rather  than  a  habit  of  work  and  a  relish  for 
independent  investigation.  The  most  important  in- 
vestigation that  man  ever  learns  to  conduct  is  the 
habit  of  learning  by  industrious  reading  what  his 
fellow-men  have  seen  and  thought.  Secondary  to 
this  is  the  originality  that  adds  something  new  to  the 
stock  of  ideas  and  experiences  of  the  race.  The 
pupil  who  has  not  yet  learned  what  the  human  race 
has  found  to  be  reasonable,  is  not  likely  to  add  any- 
thing positive  to  the  sum  total  of  human  knowledge, 
although  he  will  certainly  be  likely  to  increase  the 
negative  knowledge  by  adding  a  new  example  of  folly 
and  failure. 

"  The  first  thing  in  education,  therefore,  is  the 
acquirement  of  the  experience  of  the  world,  in  order 
that  the  pupil  may  not  start  anew  at  the  bottom  of 
the  hill,  but  may  begin  with  the  results  of  the  work 
of  his  race."— [W.  T.  HARRIS.] 

IDEAL   TEXT-BOOKS. 

1.  Original — An  ideal  text-book  is  a  creation  of 
genius.  We  think  of  genius  as  ability  to  see  into 
things.  The  author  of  a  true  text-book  gains  insight 
into  pupil  nature  and  into  his  subject,  and  so  is  able 


IDEAL  SCHOOL  TEXT-BOOKS.  77 

to  create  a  text-book  which  unfolds  the  subject  to 
the  pupil.  A  real  text-book  is  as  truly  a  creation  as 
a  play  of  Shakespeare.  It  furnishes  materials  and 
ideals  for  generations  of  compilers.  Such  text-books 
do  not  come  at  the  bidding  of  publishers.  Like  the 
classics,  they  are  original  in  plan  and  expression,  but 
embody  the  wisdom  of  the  race.  The  author  of  a 
true  text-book  deserves  to  be  crowned  side  by  side 
with  the  poet. 

2.  Brief. — An  ideal  text-book  presents  the  essential 
things.     It  is  a  text-book,  not  an  encyclopedia.     It 
gives  in  good  form  the  results  of  human  experience 
and   thought.      Principles    are    concisely  presented, 
clearly  illustrated,  and  aptly  applied.     The  teacher 
interprets  the  text-book.      Oral  instruction  and  the 
school  library   supplement  the  text-book.      Though 
not  large,  the  true  text-book  presents  the  results  of 
human  learning.     A  synopsis  is  not  a  text-book,  nor 
is   the  ponderous  volume   rich   in   details;   the   one 
starves  the  pupil  while  the  other  confuses  and  dis- 
courages him.     The  golden  mean   characterizes  the 
ideal  text-book. 

3.  Clear. — An  ideal  text-book  presents  the  subject 
with  sunlight  clearness.     The  child  understands  Jesus. 
Boys  and  girls  understand  Dickens.     All  men  appre- 
ciate the  world  classics,  for  the  golden   truths  out- 
shine the  silver  settings.     The  true  text-book  holds 
the  attention  to  the  thought ;  no  energy  is  wasted 
puzzling  over  the  meaning  of  obscure  and  difficult 
expressions.     Our  best  text-books  for  school  and  col- 
lege, like  the  lessons  of  the  Great  Teacher,  are  mar- 
vels of  clearness. 


Y8     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

4.  Teachable. — An    ideal    text-book   fosters  good 
study  and  good  teaching.     Each  paragraph  is  suggest- 
ive as  well  as  expressive,  and  becomes  a  topic  for 
study.     The  pupil  is  led  to  apperceive,  for  the  new 
thought  is  approached  and  mastered  in  the  light  of 
previous  acquisitions.     One  book  is  a  delight  and  an 
inspiration  to  pupils  and  teacher,  while  another  book 
of  great  merit  is  a  disappointment  and  a  discourage- 
ment.   Whence  this  difference  ?     Perhaps  we  can  not 
express  it,  but  we  find  on  trial  this  difference.     A 
teacher  gives  up  a  strong  book  ;  why  ?     Because  with 
it  she  could  not  get  the  best  study  or  the  best  class 
work.     The  book  was  not  teachable.     Before  print- 
ing, some  authors  send  advanced  sheets  of  the  lessons 
to  a  hundred  good  teachers,  requesting  them  to  use 
with  their  classes  and  return  with  their  suggestions. 
If  all  would-be  authors  should  pursue  this  plan,  two 
thirds  of  their  books  would  never  be  printed,  but 
those  printed  would  be  treasures. 

5.  Artistic. — An  ideal  text-book  is  a  work  of  art. 
Ours  is  the  age  of  admirable  text-books.     Publishers 
are  giving  us  books  artistic  in  thought  and  in  lan- 
guage  and  mechanically  excellent.     The  binding  is 
artistic  and  enduring.     The  type  is  large  and  clear 
and  the  illustrations  are  choice.     The  beautiful  open 
page  has  always  a  smile  for  the  pupil.     It  is  taken 
by  common  consent  that  nothing  is  too  good  for  the 
child.      As  we   come   to   know   child   needs   better, 
many  artistic  improvements   in   our  text-books  will 
doubtless  be  suggested,  and  it  will  become  one  of  the 
highest  pleasures  of  the  teacher  to  put  into  the  hands 
of  pupils  the  lest  text-books.     How  are  you  to  know 


IDEAL  SCHOOL  TEXT-BOOKS.  79 

such  books  ?     Just  as  you  come  to  know  good  litera- 
ture— by  tasting  and  testing. 

THE  TEXT-BOOK  AND  OJRAL  TEACHING. 

Eeal  Teaching  is  Oral — The  teacher  leads  the  pu- 
pil to  find  out  from  Nature  and  from  books.  In  our 
times  we  magnify  experimental  methods  and  Nature 
study.  It  is  well.  But  in  all  reforms  there  is  the 
danger  of  going  to  extremes.  In  the  reaction  against 
the  slavish,  senseless  book  grinding  of  the  old  school- 
master, we  have  drifted  into  a  shoreless  sea  of  exclusive 
oral  instruction.  It  is  not  well.  Book  study  must 
go  on  side  by  side  with  Nature  study.  The  text-book 
must  always  occupy  an  important  place  in  school  work. 

Germany  has  carried  Oral  Teaching  to  Extremes.— 
"  Few  text-books  are  used  in  the  elementary  schools 
of  Germany — fewer,  I  believe,  than  is  good  for  the 
pupils — first,  because  a  knowledge  of  the  use  of  books 
and  a  good  habit  of  using  them  are  most  valuable  to 
people  of  any  walk  in  life ;  and,  secondly,  because  a 
proper  use  of  them  prevents  too  great  dependence 
upon  the  teacher.  The  programmes  of  graded  schools 
are  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  pupils  from  studying 
independently  and  without  interruption  in  school ; 
and  the  constant  talking  of  teachers,  however  stimu- 
lating it  may  be  to  pupils,  is  not  without  its  bad 
effects." — [John  F.  Prince,  Methods  in  German 
Schools.] 

The  Proper  Use  of  the  Printed  Page  is  the  Greatest 
of  all  Arts  taught  in  the  School. — "  Every  one  will  ad- 
mit that  what  is  called  the  '  slavish  use '  of  text-books 
is  a  great  evil.  The  memorizing  of  words  and  sen- 


80     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

tences  without  criticism  and  reflection  on  their  mean- 
ing is  a  mechanical  training  of  the  mind  and  fit  only 
for  parrots  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  proper  use 
of  the  printed  page  is  the  greatest  of  all  arts  taught 
in  the  school.  How  to  get  out  of  printed  words  and 
sentences  the  original  thought  and  observation  re- 
corded there — how  to  verify  these  and  critically  go 
over  the  steps  of  the  author's  mind — this  is  the  meth- 
od of  discovery  and  leads  to  the  only  real  progress ; 
for  real  progress  comes  from  availing  oneself  of  the 
wisdom  of  the  race  and  using  it  as  an  instrument  of 
new  discovery.  That  other  method  sometimes  com- 
mended, of  original  investigation  without  aid  from 
books,  forgets  that  mankind  have  toiled  for  long 
thousands  of  years  to  construct  a  ladder  of  achieve- 
ment, and  that  civilization  is  on  the  highest  round  of 
this  ladder.  It  has  invented  school  education  in  order 
that  its  youth  may  climb  quickly  to  the  top  on  the 
rounds  which  have  been  added  one  by  one  slowly 
in  the  lapse  of  ages.  The  youth  shall  profit  vica- 
riously by  the  thought  and  experience  of  those  who 
have  gone  before.  For  the  child  of  the  savage  tribe 
there  is  no  such  vicarious  thinking  and  living;  he 
begins  practically  at  the  bottom  of  this  ladder,  and 
with  no  rounds  on  which  he  may  climb." — [W.  T. 
HARRIS,  Address  on  Horace  Mann.] 

FREE  TEXT-BOOKS. 

This  seems  to  be  the  solution  of  the  book  question. 
It  is  believed  that  the  time  is  not  distant  when  all  our 
States  will  adopt  the  plan  of  furnishing  free  text- 
books now  working  so  well  in  several  States.  Each 


SUITABLE  SCHOOL  LIBRARIES.  81 

State  will  work  out  the  details  in  its  own  way.  But 
more  and  more  the  vital  management  will  be  left  to 
the  teachers,  and  we  count  as  teachers  all  school  su- 
perintendents and  'educated  librarians.  When  we  cre- 
ate rural,  primary,  intermediate,  and  high-school  de- 
partment libraries,  and  place  these  libraries  under  the 
management  of  their  respective  faculties,  it  will  be 
easy  to  have  the  text-books  supplied  through  these 
libraries  and  these  several  school  faculties.  No  one 
will  question  the  fitness  of  this  method.  The  teach- 
ers who  use  the  text-books  are  surely  the  ones  who 
should  select  the  books.  Many  advantages  not  now 
dreamed  of  will  certainlv  follow. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    SUITABLE    SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES. 

Books  educate. — Carlyle  has  said  "that  the  true 
university  of  these  days  is  a  collection  of  books."  It 
is  an  education  to  know  how  to  read  and  what  to 
read.  The  school  does  its  best  work  when  it  develops 
a  taste  for  the  best  literature  and  fosters  the  reading 
habit.  Men  of  action  as  well  as  men  of  thought  get 
their  inspiration  from  books.  A  choice  school  li- 
brary wisely  used  doubles  the  efficiency  of  the  school. 
The  school  library  as  now  conceived  includes  a  work- 
ing library  for  each  schoolroom,  a  department  library 


82  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

for  each  department,  and  a  general  library  for  each 
city. 

Rural. 


1.  The  working  libraries,  •{  3.  Intermediate. 

High  scl 
College. 


ft 

2.  Primary. 
•I  3.  Intermedi 
4.  High  school. 


SCHOOL  LIBRARIES.  •{ 

(  1.  Rural. 


2.  The  department  libra-     J  SSShii 

ies>  4.  High  school. 

3.  The  general  library.       [  5.  College. 

We  plan  to  make  school  libraries  accessible,  suit- 
able, choice.  As  made  and  managed  in  other  days, 
the  library  was  practically  out  of  the  reach  of  teach- 
ers and  pupils.  The  world  is  now  working  to  put  se- 
lect libraries  into  the  schools,  to  be  managed  by  the 
teachers.  The  twentieth  century  seems  destined  to 
be  the  school-library  age  of  the  world.  The  coming 
teachers  are  studying  how  to  create  and  how  to  man- 
age and  how  to  use  ideal  school  libraries,  just  as  they 
are  studying  how  to  control  wisely  and  teach  efficient- 
ly. Nothing  in  art  is  final.  Our  crude  beginnings 
must  give  place  to  better  things.  The  partial  failures 
of  most  school-library  schemes  stimulate  us  to  de- 
vise better  things.  In  faith  and  hope  this  sug- 
gestive scheme  is  submitted  to  the  brotherhood  of 
teachers.  Brethren,  the  work  is  intrusted  to  you. 
Horace  Mann,  in  1840,  made  an  earnest  plea  for  the 
school  library  :  "  The  idea  is  modern.  In  1835  the 
State  of  New  York  initiated  the  movement  to  place 
a  library  in  each  school.  I  look  upon  the  effort  to 
place  within  the  reach  of  young  and  old  the  best  and 
most  suitable  books  as  one  of  the  grandest  moral  en- 


SUITABLE  SCHOOL  LIBRARIES.  83 

terpriscs  of  the  age.  It  will  extend  to  all  the  inesti- 
mable privileges  heretofore  enjoyed  by  the  few." 
New  York  seems  to  have  led  in  the  school-library 
movement,  as  it  has  in  other  great  forward  educa- 
tional movements. 

THE  WORKING  LIBRARIES. 

Each  schoolroom,  in  schools  above  the  kinder- 
garten, should  have  a  working  library.  For  our  ele- 
mentary schools,  the  ideal  working  library  contains 
about  one  hundred  volumes,  kept  in  a  pretty  revolv- 
ing bookcase.  The  books  are  selected  to  supplement 
the  teaching,  and  the  pupils  feel  as  free  to  use  the 
books  as  to  breathe  the  air.  They  come  to  think  of 
the  library  as  theirs,  and  they  are  led  to  feel  a  whole- 
some respect  for  the  books.  "  Our  library  must  be 
handled  with  care,  and  must  be  kept  clean  and  beauti- 
ful," is  the  sentiment  of  the  school.  The  teacher 
never  wearies  in  teaching  the  pupils  how  to  read  and 
what  to  read.  No  effort  is  spared  to  develop  the 
reading  habit  and  to  cultivate  an  appreciation  of  good 
books.  The  pupils  are  not  encouraged  to  read  many 
books,  but  to  read  appreciatively  the  best  books  for 
them. 

1.  The  Working  Rural  School  Library  should  be  Fos- 
tered.— We  find,  as  a  rule,  few  suitable  books  for  the 
young  in  the  average  rural  home.  Then,  in  the  coun-. 
try,  culture  must  necessarily  come  very  largely  through 
the  school  and  through  books.  Access  to  a  hundred 
choice  books  means  a  new  world  to  the  country  pu- 
pil. Nearly  all  libraries  are  still  urban  ;  we  earnestly 
plead  for  a  working  library  in  every  country  school- 


84:     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

house.  Ten  dollars  invested  in  a  rural  school  library 
will  do  more  good  than  a  hundred  dollars  invested  in 
an  urban  school  library.  "  If  I  had  a  million  dollars 
to  invest  where  it  would  do  most  good,"  said  a  great 
philanthropist,  "  I  would  put  it  all  into  rural  school 
libraries." 

2.  Primary  Working  Libraries  enrich. — Millions  of 
our  pupils  do  not  even  reach  our  grammar  schools, 
and,   besides,   the    reading   habit   is   easiest    formed 
during   the   primary   years.      We   are   now  rich   in 
books   suitable   for   children.     To   get   our   primary 
pupils  into  the  habit  of  reading  appreciatively  choice 
books  is  a  great  work.      This  is  purifying  and  en- 
riching  the   stream   of    humanity    at   the    fountain. 
One  hundred  suitable  books  for  the  children  in  each 
primary   schoolroom    would    prove    an    incalculable 
blessing. 

3.  Intermediate  Working  Libraries  elevate. — In  the 
specialized   intermediate    there   will   be  five   special 
libraries  in  addition  to  the  department  library :  con- 
duct,  literature,    science,    mathematics,    art.      Each 
teacher  will  form  a  special  library  to  re-enforce  his 
special  work.     In  our  unspecialized  grammar  schools 
each  working  library  must  include  books  for  all  the 
subjects,  and  books  must  be  selected  to  suit  the  grade. 
These  libraries  will   afford  congenial  and  profitable 

>  occupation  for  restless  boys  and  girls,  and  pupils  will 
be  trained  to  find  out  from  books.  The  text-book  in 
geography  is  supplemented  by  suitable  books  of  ex- 
ploration and  travel,  and  by  the  stories  of  the  States 
and  nations.  So  in  all  the  studies.  Each  study  is  en- 
riched by  the  library. 


SUITABLE  SCHOOL   LIBRARIES.  85 

4.  High-school  Working  Libraries  are  invaluable.— 
The  pupil  is  now  a  student,  and  is  capable  of  great 
things.  Probably  at  no  other  period  of  life  do  choice 
books  count  for  so  much.  The  youth  learns  to  use 
wisely  the  general  library,  but  still  needs  the  help  of 
the  teacher.  One  book  in  the  teacher's  working 
library  counts  for  more  than  a  hundred  in  the  general 
library.  Pupils  are  led  to  read  at  least  one  excellent 
book  in  connection  with  each  study  in  addition  to 
general  reading.  Each  high-school  teacher  is  a  spe- 
cialist in  a  group  of  studies,  and  his  working  library 
is  a  special  library. 

DEPARTMENT  LIBRARIES. 

The  Isolated  Teacher  belongs  to  the  Past. — Every- 
where teachers  are  learning  to  work  in  groups.  The 
law  of  unity  requires  this.  A  group  of  teachers  work- 
ing as  a  unit  constitute  a  faculty.  The  primary  prin- 
cipal and  her  assistants  constitute  a  primary  faculty ; 
the  intermediate  principal  and  the  assistants  constitute 
an  intermediate  faculty;  the  principal  of  the  high 
school  and  the  assistants  constitute  a  high -school 
faculty.  We  are  now  learning  to  group  our  rural 
schools,  making  the  teacher  of  the  central  school  prin- 
cipal, and  the  teachers  of  the  several  schools  in  the 
group  assistants.  The  teachers  of  a  group  of  rural 
schools  work  as  a  unit,  and  we  are  coming  to  think  of 
the  district  principal  and  his  assistants  as  a  rural  school 
faculty.  We  are  getting  to  understand  the  law  of 
unity,  and  it  is  surely  revolutionizing  our  school  work. 

One  function  of  the  department  libraries  will 
doubtless  be  to  furnish  free  text-books.  As  the  prin- 


86  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

cipal  is  librarian  and  the  assistant  teachers  assistant 
librarians,  the  management  of  text-books  will  be  ad- 
mirably provided  for.  Many  States  now  supply  text- 
books to  the  pupils  free,  and  the  time  is  not  distant,  it 
is  believed,  when  all  the  States  will  adopt  this  plan. 

1.  The  Rural  School  Department  Library  is  most 
important. — More  than  half  of  all  our  pupils  are  in 
our  country  schools.  Think  of  the  beneficent  work  of 
getting  into  the  hands,  and  heads,  and  hearts  of  these 
starving  millions  the  world's  best  literature !  It  is 
not  easy  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  this  move- 
ment, "the  grandest  moral  enterprise  of  the  age." 
What  greater  work  can  the  millionaire  do  than  to 
endow  the  rural  school  libraries  of  his  native  State  ? 
This  library,  as  we  now  think  of  it,  is  kept  in  the 
library  room  of  the  central  school  building  of  the 
rural  school  group,  and  the  principal  is  librarian. 
Each  of  the  assistant  teachers  is  an  assistant  librarian, 
and  books  are  returned  and  taken  out  at  the  semi- 
monthly meetings.  The  faculty,  with  the  best  avail- 
able helps,  and  under  the  general  directions  of  the 
county  and  State  superintendents,  plan,  build  up,  and 
manage  the  library.  Each  teacher  gives  an  annual 
entertainment  for  the  benefit  of  the  library,  and  the 
State  and  the  district  contribute  annually  limited 
amounts.  Donations  are  always  in  money.  The 
working  library  of  each  school  is  furnished  from  the 
district  library,  and  is  kept  fresh. 

The  rural  school  library  must  meet  the  wants  of 
all,  and  must  be  made  easily  accessible  to  old  and 
young.  In  selecting  books,  we  first  think  of  our  pu- 
pils, and  then  of  the  people,  and  then  of  ourselves  as 


SUITABLE  SCHOOL  LIBRARIES.  87 

professional  teachers.     "We  study  to  get  the  best  helps 
for  all. 

2.  The  Primary  Department  Library  is  of  Great 
Value. — Here,  too,  the  principal  is  librarian  and  the 
assistant  teachers  are  assistant  librarians.     The  work- 
ing libraries  are  supplied  from  the  department  library, 
and  the  department  libraries  are  supplied  from  the 
general  library.     The  primary  faculty,  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  superintendent  and  the  general  librarian, 
plan,  build  up,  and  manage  the  primary  library.    They 
study  to  procure  the  most  helpful  books,  first  for  the 
children  and  then  for  themselves.     There  is  no  ma- 
chine work,  and   no  two  libraries  will  ever  be   the 
same.     The  faculty  study,  discuss,  select,  and  thus  the 
library  is   always  unique,  is  always  growing.     It   is 
completely  adapted  to  childhood  and  primary  work, 
for  the  teachers  make  and  manage  it. 

3.  The    Intermediate  Department   Library. — Until 
the  pupils  reach  the  high  school  their  reading  should, 
as  far  as  practicable,  be  directed  by  the  teachers.     The 
intermediate  principal  is  librarian,  and  the  assistant 
teachers  are   assistant  librarians.     The  -intermediate 
faculty  create  a  unique  intermediate  library  and  man- 
age it.     Books  are  secured  through  the  general  li- 
brary, and  from  this  library  the  intermediate  working 
libraries  get  their  supplies.     The  intermediate  teach- 
ers work  as  a  unit.     At  their  weekly  meetings  we 
must  find  remarkable  interest  in  library  measures.     It 
is  safe  as  well  as  wise  to  leave  the  intermediate  faculty 
to  plan  and  manage  the  intermediate  library.     Super- 
intendents and  general  librarians  do  well  to  limit  them- 
selves to  suggestions. 


88      SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

4.  High  School,  Normal  School,  and  College  Depart- 
ment Libraries  stand  Side  by  Side  with  the  Labora- 
tories.— Research  and  investigation  go  on  together. 
Experts  are  interested  in  details,  but  the  educator 
studies  to  get  the  libraries  close  to  the  students.  Each 
group  of  studies  now  has  its  department  library  and 
each  professor  has  his  special  working  library.  This 
plan,  it  is  claimed,  increases  a  hundredfold  the  value 
of  the  general  library.  Those  who  have  closely  ob- 
served its  workings  for  decades  so  testify.  General 
school  and  college  libraries  do  their  most  effective 
work  in  supplying  the  department  libraries. 

GENERAL  SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE  LIBRARIES. 

Our  mammoth  public-school  and  college  libraries 
are  our  pride  and  delight,  but  are  they  doing  all  they 
are  capable  of  doing  ?  The  Bank  of  Scotland  through 
its  branches  extends  its  privileges  to  all  the  people  of 
Scotland.  May  not  our  great  libraries,  in  a  similar 
way,  vastly  extend  their  usefulness  ?  The  editor  of 
the  Library  Journal  says  :  "  The  trend  of  opinion 
and  experience  points  toward  the  branch  school  li- 
brary as  the  best  solution  of  the  library  problem. 
Those  libraries  that  have  tried  the  method  are  unani- 
mous in  its  favour.  Now,  at  best,  our  great  libraries 
do  not  reach  a  large  percentage  of  our  pupils,  but 
when  they  learn  to  enlist  all  teachers  as  active  assist- 
ant librarians,  then  their  beneficence  will  be  extended 
to  every  pupil." 

The  library  department  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association,  the  professional  librarians  who  are 
so  admirably  managing  our  great  libraries,  and  our 


SUITABLE  SCHOOL  LIBRARIES.  89 

various  library  associations,  give  promise  of  great 
usefulness  in  the  future.  At  present  all  plans  for 
library  extension  must  be  tentative,  but  we  shall  build 
on  the  rock  when  we  learn  to  intrust  to  our  teachers 
the  management  of  our  working  and  our  department 
school  libraries.  The  general  library  will  thus  come 
into  direct  touch  with  all  the  teachers  and  all  the  pu- 
pils, and  will  supplement  in  the  most  helpful  ways  all 
other  agencies. 

Our  general  libraries  should  be  managed  by  pro- 
fessional librarians  in  thorough  sympathy  with  the 
schools.  In  the  near  future  only  graduates  of  schools 
for  librarians  will  be  given  charge  of  our  libraries. 
Such  librarians  will  organize  and  train  the  teachers 
for  assistant  librarians,  and  will  thus  extend  the  bless- 
ings of  the  library  to  every  home. 

EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL  FACILITIES. 

SUGGESTIONS,    STUDY   HINTS,    AND   TOPICS   FOR   DISCUSSION. 

V.  Pupil  Environments. — Show  the  relations  of  environment  to 
growth.    Why  is  the  school  site  so  important "?    Describe  desira- 
ble and  undesirable   hygienic   environments ;   aesthetic  environ- 
ments; culture  environments ;  moral  environments.     Sketch  your 
ideal  school  grounds  ;  your  ideal  schoolroom.    Why  should  school 
grounds  be  play-inviting?    Point  out  the  relations  of  play  and 
work.    What  may  the  teacher  do  to  improve  pupil  environments'? 

VI.  School  Appliances. — Show  that  the  schoolroom  is  much 
more  than  a  workshop.     Is  the  school  a  miniature  world  ?    Give 
your  plan  for  securing  good  hygienic  conditions  for  effective  school 
work.    Tell  how  you  would  have  a  schoolhouse  constructed  and 
furnished  so  as  to  facilitate  movements.    Describe  the  automatic 
movements  of  a  school  signalled  by  an  electric  programme  clock. 
What  are  the  gains  f    How  does  physical  comfort  help?    Picture 
the  evolutions  of  school  seats  and  desks  ;  the  teacher's  desk.   How 
will  you  fix  your  dictionary  holder  f    Describe  your  working-li- 


90     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

brary  case ;  your  arrangements  for  maps,  charts,  pictures.  Give 
some  reasons  for  the  use  of  the  blackboard.  How  will  you  abol- 
ish the  dust  nuisance  ?  Tell  some  of  the  benefits  of  pictures  in 
the  schoolroom. 

VII.  School  Apparatus. — Tell  what  you  mean  by  educative  ap- 
paratus.    Describe  your  educative  school  grounds;  your  educative 
schoolroom ;    your  ideal  blackboard.      How  may  the  teacher's 
blackboard  be  best  arranged  ?   What  do  you  consider  the  most  de- 
sirable helps  in  conduct  teaching  ?  in  language-literature  teach- 
ing I  in  science  teaching  ?  in  mathematics  teaching  ?  in  art  teach- 
ing ?    Give  some  of  the  advantages  in  having  teacher  and  pupils 
make  a  part  of  the  apparatus  ;  make  their  own  collections.    Sug- 
gest ways  of  securing  and  preserving  apparatus. 

VIII.  School  Text-Books. — What  is  meant  by  a  text-book?  a  ref- 
erence-book ?    Give  your  reasons  for  exalting  the  art  of  gaining 
knowledge  from  books.     Why  should  a  text-book  be  original  ? 
brief?  clear?  teachable?  artistic?   Tell  the  story  of  the  oral-teach- 
ing movement.     Give  your  reasons  for  thinking  that  the  Germans 
make  a  mistake  in  ignoring  text-books.    Outline  Dr.  Harris's  rea- 
sons for  emphasizing  the  proper  use  of  the  printed  page.     Give 
your  arguments  for  and  against  free  text-books.     What  plan  of 
adopting  and  supplying  text-books  do  you  count  best  ?    Is  it  safe 
to  intrust  this  work  to  the  teachers  ? 

IX.  School  Libraries. — Give  Carlyle's  definition  of  a  modern 
university.    How  may  school  libraries  be  made  to  reach  all  pu- 
pils ?    Is  it  well  to  make  each  teacher  an  assistant  librarian  ? 
What  State  initiated  the  school-library  movement  ?    When  ?    Tell 
what  Horace  Mann  said  in  1840.    Present  seven  reasons  why  each 
schoolroom  should  have  a  working  library.    Describe  the  ideal 
rural    school    working    library ;    primary ;    intermediate ;    high- 
school.    Give  reasons  for  a  department  library  for  each  depart- 
ment 01  our  school  work.     Why  should  the  department  faculty 
manage  the  department  library?    Describe  the  ideal  rural  school 
department  library ;   primary  school ;  intermediate  school ;  high 
school.    What  must  become  the  most  beneficent  function  of  the 
general  library  ?    Illustrate  by  the  Bank  of  Scotland.    Should  our 
general  libraries  be  managed  by  professional  librarians  educated 
and  trained  for  this  special  work  ?    What  can  teachers  do  to  ad- 
vance the  school-library  movement  ? 


PART  III. 

PUPIL   IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH 
EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT. 


CHAPTER  X. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EDUCATIVE  GOV- 
ERNING POWER. 

XI. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EDUCATIVE  MO- 
TIVES. 
XII. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL 

REGULATIONS. 

XIII. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EDUCATIVE  LAW- 
ABIDING. 

XIV.— PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EDUCATIVE  PUN- 
ISHMENTS. 

01 


C1- 

2. 

3. 

EDUCATIVE 

4. 

GOVERNING  "* 

. 

POWER. 

. 
7. 

. 
[9. 

1. 

XL 
EDUCATIVE 
MOTIVES. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

6- 

1. 

2. 

XII. 

EDUCATIVE 

3. 

SCHOOL     - 

REGULA- 

TIONS. 

4. 

.5. 

\  1. 

XIII. 
EDUCATIVE 
LAW-      * 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

ABIDING. 

6. 

.7. 

'1. 

2. 

XIV. 

EDUCATIVE 

3. 

PUNISH- 

MENTS. 

4. 

.5. 

Character. — The  teacher  the  conduct  model. 
Culture. — The  teacher  the  ideal. 
Insight. — The  teacher  the  wise  guide. 
Teaching  Power. — The  teacher  an  artist. 
Will  Power. — The  teacher  a  leader. 
Heart  Power. — The  teacher  a  helpful  friend. 
System. — The  teacher  an  organizer. 
Tact. — The  teacher  a  manager. 
Bearing. — The  teacher  a  governor. 

Through  high  incentives  we  lead. 
Highest  Motives. — Duty,  truth,  beauty. 
Altruistic  Motives. — Social  betterment. 
Egoistic  Motives. — Self-betterment. 
Low  Motives. — Fear,  rivalry,  marks,  prizes. 
Debasing  Motives.— Selfishness,  malevolence. 

1.  A  school  an  embryo  state.     ( 1.  Educative. 

2.  Positive. 

2.  School  regulations  must  be  -{  3.  General. 

4.  Practical. 
The  school  makes  the  laws.  [  5.  Popular. 

1.  Law  of  quietness. 

2.  Law  of  regularity. 
School  code.  4  3.  Law  of  promptness. 

4.  Law  of  propriety. 

5.  Law  of  duty. 
[  5.  Adopting  code. 

1.  Govern  up  to  law-abiding  self-control. 

2.  Educate  the  pupil  to  work  quietly. 

3.  Educate  to  habits  of  regularity. 
Educate  to  habits  of  promptitude. 

5.  Educate  pupils  to  act  with  propriety. 

6.  Educate  pupils  to  do  right. 

7.  Conditions,  example,  teaching,  training. 

1.  Punishment   is    remedial   and  works    law- 


abiding. 

2.  School  punishment  must 

be 

3.  Educa-  fl.  Disapproval. 

tive     J  2.  Reproof, 
punish-  I  3.  Deprivations, 
ments.    |^4.  Suspension. 
Hurtful    school    punish- 
ments. 


1.  Educative. 

2.  Natural. 

3.  Reformatory. 

4.  Just. 

5.  Mild  and  rare. 


1.  Corporal. 

2.  Fear. 

3.  Degrading. 

4.  Marking. 
Punishments  must  be  rational. 


PAET  THIED. 

PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH   EDUCATIVE 
SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EDUCATIVE  GOVERNING 
POWER. 

THE  purpose  of  the  school  is  educative,  and  the 
teacher  is  pre-eminently  the  educator.  Appliances  are 
important,  but  the  teacher  is  the  vital  agency.  All 
good  comes  through  lawful  self-effort,  but  it  is  the 
teacher  who  manages  to  secure  educative  effort. 
Governing  power  is  the  Divine  commission  for  lead- 
ership, and  is  the  proof  that  the  teacher  is  called  and 
sent.  The  teacher  thus  commissioned,  through  en- 
nobling motives,  leads  his  pupils  up  to  self-control,  self- 
government,  and  self -efficiency.  Teaching  is  the  art 
of  promoting  pupil  growth — physical,  mental,  moral 
— and  we  think  of  the  teacher  as  having  the  capabil- 
ity to  lead  his  pupils  to  make  the  most  of  themselves. 
He  somehow  manages  to  get  his  pupils  into  habits  of 
doing  what  is  right  and  best.  When  one  goes  wrong, 
he  manages  to  get  him  to  retrace  his  steps.  The 

93 


94     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

power  to  thus  manage  is  termed  educative  governing 
power.  Most  persons  who  really  desire  to  be  teach- 
ers are  gifted  with  governing  ability,  but  this  power 
may  be  incalculably  increased  by  culture.  The  ora- 
tor, the  musician,  the  poet,  and  the  educator  are 
such  because  they  have  improved  their  natural 
gifts.  Teacher,  this  is  a  personal  lesson.  In  view 
of  human  experience,  you  ask,  "What  are  the  ele- 
ments of  educative  governing  power  ? "  and  "  How 
may  I  put  on  the  whole  armour  of  educative  leader- 
ship?" 

1.  Character. — Be  what  you  would  have  your  pu- 
pils become.  Moral  character  is  the  first  element  of 
educative  governing  power.  No  bad  person  can  gov- 
ern well.  Moral  character — purity  of  heart  and  life — 
is  the  basis  of  true  educative  leadership. 

Jesus  lived  the  one  perfect  life,  and  so  is  the  fit 
leader  of  men.  As  you  approach  the  perfect  life  you 
become  fit  to  lead  your  pupils  up  to  a  higher  and  bet- 
ter life.  Moral  character  is  the  most  potent  of  all 
forces.  We  despise  and  distrust  a  base,  weak,  mean 
man  ;  but  we  trust  and  almost  worship  a  pure,  strong, 
true  man.  The  vile  teacher,  however  brilliant,  de- 
bases his  pupils  and  fosters  anarchy.  The  pure, 
strong  teacher  is  a  living  object  lesson,  and  a  fit 
leader  of  pupils.  Such  a  teacher,  above  all,  will  fos- 
ter the  moral  virtues  and  promote  the  growth  of 
moral  character.  Conduct  and  not  scholarship  is  the 
pre-eminent  thing  in  education.  It  is  easy  for  a 
worthy  teacher  to  govern  well,  for  his  pupils  trust 
him,  love  him,  reverence  him.  Moral  worth  is  the 
uplifting  factor  in  teacher  governing  power. 


EDUCATIVE  GOVERNING  POWER.  95 

IX.  BEARING.  Assert  leadership  by  your  bearing. 

A7TTT    „,  (  Manage  to  utilize  all  educative  agen- 

Lll.  IACT.  - 


(  Secure  good  order  and  efficient  work 
Vll.  SYSTEM.          -      throuh  sstem. 


VI.  WILL  POWER, 

V.  HEART  POWER.  |  BeJ^ehefpuePirs  sympathizing  friend 

IV.  TEACHING        j  Lead  pupils  to  do  the  best  work  in  the 

POWER,  j      best  ways. 

III.  PUPIL  '  j  Study  pupil  nature  that  you  may  pro- 

INSIGHT.  (      mote  pupil  growth. 

(  Cherish    the  spirit    of    mastery   and 
II.  CULTURE.          |     broad  cultur£ 

(  Be  what  you  wish  your  pupils  to  be- 
..     L  I.  CHARACTER.       j     come<   * 

2.  Culture.  —  Master  the  subjects  you  teach,  and 
seek  broad  culture.  Culture  is  the  second  element  of 
educative  governing  power.  All  the  world  follow 
the  man  who  knows.  Broad  culture  commands. 
Educational  leaders  must  be  cultured  men  and 
women.  Aristotle  and  Thomas  Arnold,  the  peerless 
teachers,  were  also  peerless  students.  Only  earnest 
learners  are  fit  to  lead  learners.  It  is  said  that  Ag- 
assiz  never  needed  to  ask  for  attention  ;  he  knew, 
and  commanded  attention  through  interest.  After 
half  a  century  of  highly  successful  work  a  teacher 
was  asked  the  secret  of  her  success.  "  Thorough  prep- 
aration," was  her  modest  answer.  Many  teachers, 
some  say  a  majority,  never  investigate,  never  think, 
never  study,  never  prepare  the  lessons.  Surely  such 
persons  are  unfit  to  lead  their  pupils  to  mastery. 
They  are  not  learners,  and  hence  are  not  in  touch 
with  learners.  They  can  not  govern  well  because 
they  can  not  create  and  sustain  interest.  Only  ear- 


96     SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

nest  students  can  be  educational  leaders.  It  is  easy 
for  the  cultured  teacher  to  govern  well,  for  culture 
commands  respect  and  confidence.  Culture  is  the 
commanding  factor  in  teacher  governing  power. 

3.  Pupil  Insight. — Study   pupil  nature   that  you 
may   promote   pupil   growth.     Pupil   insight  is  the 
third  element  of  educative  governing  power.     The 
world's  great  leaders  have  been  profound  students  of 
human  nature.     They  knew  men  as  well  as  affairs. 
The  educator  must  know  his  pupils.     You  study  the 
physical  economy  that  you  may  command  hygienic 
conditions  and  promote  physical  vigour.     You  study 
the  mental  economy  that  you  may  adapt  the  work  to 
each  pupil  and  promote  harmonious  mental  growth. 
You  study  the  moral  economy  that  you  may  foster 
character  growth.     You  work  in  the  light,  and  com- 
mand   everything  that  helps  and   reject   everything 
that  hurts.     You  provide  the  best  work  for  each  and 
all ;  you   manage   to   have   each  pupil  do  educative 
work.     Not  understanding  his  pupils,  the  old  school- 
master groped  his  way  in  the  dark  and  ruled  through 
the   rod.      Many    modern    schoolkeepers  know   not 
their   pupils,  and  hence  govern  through  low   incen- 
tives.    It  is  easy  for  one  who  knows  his  pupils  to 
govern  well,  for  he  understands  their  ways  and  wants. 
Pupil  insight  is  the  guiding  factor  in  teacher  govern- 
ing power. 

4.  Teaching  Power. — Lead  your  pupils  to  do  the 
best  work  in  the  best  ways.     Teaching  power  is  the 
fourth  element  of  educative  governing  power.     You, 
in   some   degree,  have   mastered   the   educative   art. 
You  laid  a  solid  foundation  in  the  rock  of  self-study 


EDUCATIVE  GOVERNING  POWER.  97 

and  pupil  study.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  edu- 
cator you  have  studied  the  history  and  science  of  edu- 
cation. You  have  lingered  at  the  feet  of  the  masters, 
and  learned  the  art  of  teaching  from  Jesus,  from 
Plato,  from  Froebel.  You  have  read  some  of  the 
best  things  and  have  felt  the  spell  of  some  of  the 
best  living  teachers.  You  have  gained  some  skill  in 
the  divine  art  of  teaching.  Realizing  the  precious- 
ness  of  each  moment,  you  so  plan  that  your  pupils  do 
only  the  best  work  and  only  in  the  best  ways.  You 
manage  to  keep  yourself  and  your  pupils  so  interested 
and  so  busy  that  there  is  no  time  or  occasion  for  dis- 
cipline or  marking.  Good  teaching  insures  easy  con- 
trol and  promotes  everything  that  is  best  in  school 
life.  But  many  schoolkeepers  can  not  teach,  and  so 
the  time  and  energies  of  hosts  of  pupils  are  squan- 
dered. Disorder  comes  of  inability  tov  teach.  To 
keep  order  takes  a  large  part  of  the  time  of  the  weak 
teacher.  The  soul-waste  in  many  schools  is  appalling. 
It  is  easy  for  the  powerful  teacher  to  govern  well,  for 
he  interests  his  pupils  and  leads  them  on  to  victory. 
Teaching  power  is  the  vital  factor  in  teacher  govern- 
ing power. 

5.  Heart  Power. — Be  the  pupil's  sympathetic  friend 
and  helper.  Heart  power  is  the  fifth  element  of  edu- 
cative governing  power.  Love  is  the  last  word  in  the 
art  of  educative  leadership.  The  teacher  is  warm- 
hearted as  well  as  pure-hearted.  In  the  old  education 
the  teacher  was  master,  and  drove ;  in  the  new  educa- 
tion the  teacher  is  the  pupil's  friend,  and  leads.  The 
Great  Teacher  was  the  loving  friend  and  companion  of 
his  disciples.  Pestalozzi  lived  with  his  pupils,  worked 
8 


98      SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

with  them,  shared  their  joys  and  sorrows.  You  love 
your  pupils  and  are  touched  by  their  infirmities  ;  you 
sympathize  with  them  in  their  temptations  and  diffi- 
culties, and  you  rejoice  with  them  in  their  joys  and 
/successes.  You  do  your  best  to  make  each  one  strong 
f  and  good  and  useful  and  happy.  By  friendly  looks, 
kind  words,  and  generous  acts  you  win  the  esteem  and 
love  of  your  pupils  and  make  them  your  true  friends. 
In  the  sunshine  of  affection  all  that  is  lovely  in  pupil 
nature  buds,  blossoms,  and  bears  fruit.  Even  hateful 
children  become  interested  and  interesting.  The  tricks 
and  shams  and  frauds  and  stupidities  and  cruelties 
that  blighted  the  old  school  life  shrink  away,  for  love 
delights  to  cast  out  stupidity  and  fraud  as  well  as 
fear. 

Teaching  is  the  altruistic  profession.  The  teacher 
does  not  think  of  self,  but  feels  a  burning  desire  to 
do  most  for  his  pupils.  He  studies  to  lead  them  to 
find  out  the  best  things,  feel  the  most  exalting  emo- 
tions, and  do  the  most  ennobling  acts.  His  pupils 
grow  altruistic  and  rival  each  other  in  generosity. 
All  help  each  to  know  more,  do  more,  be  more.  It 
is  easy  for  the  sympathetic  teacher  to  govern  well,  for 
love  makes  teacher  and  pupils  coworkers.  Heart 
power  is  the  winning  factor  in  teacher  governing 
power. 

6.  Will  Power. — Control  through  high  and  elevat- 
ing motives.  Will  power  is  the  sixth  element  of  ed- 
ucative governing  power.  Will  stands  for  effort- 
making.  Will  power  is  the  Aladdin's  lamp  that 
brings  about  results  and  achieves  the  unexpected  and 
the  impossible.  Men  of  great  will  power  lead  armies, 


EDUCATIVE  GOVERNING  POWER.  99 

lead  nations,  lead  the  world.  Will  power  gives  us 
manly  men  and  womanly  women.  Aristotle  had 
greater  will  power  than  Alexander,  and  Paul  had 
greater  will  power  than  Caesar.  The  loving  Jesus 
had  supreme  will  power. 

Will  power  is  the  invincible  governing  force. 
The  teacher  plans  wisely  and  executes  firmly.  You 
do  most  for  your  pupils  by  leading  them  through  high 
motives  to  develop  habits  of  persistency  in  high  en- 
deavour. You  lead  them  through  right  incentives  to 
plan  well  their  work  and  persistently  carry  out  their 
plans.  You  train  them  to  do  their  best  in  the  best 
ways  and  so  become  strong  and  efficient.  You  man- 
age to  infuse  into  them  iron  determination  and  in- 
domitable courage.  You  cherish  self-control  by  ex- 
ample, by  telling  about  noble  people,  by  training. 
Each  pupil  develops  the  double  art  of  self-control  and 
self-government.  It  is  easy  for  the  decided  teacher 
to  govern  well,  for  he  is  leader.  Will  power  is  the 
controlling  factor  in  teacher  governing  power. 

7.  System. — Secure  order  through  system.  Infuse 
system  into  all  school  work.  System  is  the  seventh 
element  of  educative  governing  power.  System 
stands  for  fitness  of  things.  It  transforms  a  mob  into 
an  army.  System  means  order  in  school  work,  and 
order  means  a  time  for  everything,  a  place  for  every- 
thing, and  method  in  doing  everything.  The  skilful 
teacher  manages  to  get  these  order  elements  into  the 
warp  and  woof  of  school  life. 

(1)  Time  system  is  essential  to  order  and  effi- 
ciency. Regularity  and  promptitude  are  the  basis  of 
school  order.  The  programme  provides  occupation 


100  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

for  each  pupil  during  each  moment  of  the  school  day. 
The  teacher  trains  the  pupils  to  work  to  the  pro- 
gramme, and  thus  prepares  them  for  life.  Work 
and  recreation  supplement  each  other,  and  pupils 
are  happy  because  they  are  kept  interested  and 
busy. 

(2)  Place  system  helps  to  produce  order.    "  A  place 
for  everything  and  everything  in  its  place  "  is  as  im- 
portant to  the  teacher  as  to  the  housekeeper  or  the 
mechanic.     Having  places  for  play,  for  wrappings, 
for  books,  for  study,  and  for  recitation  enables  the 
teacher  to  secure  good  order  with  much  greater  readi- 
ness. 

Training  pupils  to  orderly  habits  in  the  school- 
room prepares  them  for  orderly  habits  through  life. 
The  teacher's  desk,  the  pupil's  desk,  the  schoolroom, 
and  the  school  grounds  should  be  models  of  order  and 
neatness. 

(3)  Method  system  works  educational  marvels. 
From  the  opening  to  the  close  of  school  all  move- 
ments are  signalled  by  the  programme  clock.     En- 
ergy is  economized  to  the  utmost.     Pupils  are  trained 
to   efficient   methods   of   study.      The   most   helpful 
methods  of  teaching  are  studied.     In  all  the  school 
work  there  are  definite  purposes  and  right  ways  of 
realizing  them.     He  who  shortens  the  road  to  knowl- 
edge lengthens  life.     "Wise  methods  of  work  double 
teacher  efficiency  and  pupil  efficiency.     Good  meth- 
ods lessen  friction  and  make  effort  count  for  most. 
System  is  the  key  to  success ;   it  organizes  victory. 
Systematic  working   habits  are  worth   more  to   the 
pupils  than  the  knowledge  gained.     System  organizes 


EDUCATIVE  GOVERNING   POWER.  1Q1 

order,  and  each  pupil  learns  to  move  to  the  rhythm 
of  the  school.  It  is  easy  for  the  systematic  teacher 
to  govern  well,  for  he  makes  school  life  orderly. 
System  is  the  organizing  factor  in  teacher  governing 
power. 

8.  Tact. — Manage  to  utilize  all  educational  agen- 
cies. Tact  is  the  eighth  element  of  educative  govern- 
ing power.  Tact  stands  for  the  wisdom  of  the  serpent 
blended  with  the  innocence  of  the  dove.  It  means 
policy  in  right  doing.  Paul  adapted  himself  to  all 
classes.  Cicero  conciliated  his  auditors.  Even  Alex- 
ander and  Caesar  and  Napoleon  had  to  use  tact  in 
managing  their  soldiers.  We  think  of  tact  as  includ- 
ing common  sense,  wisdom,  shrewdness,  and  skill  in 
managing. 

(1)  As  a  leader  the  teacher  needs  to  he  tactful.     Co- 
operation must  be  secured  and  opposition  disarmed. 
One  person  can  not  do  much,  but  many  persons  work- 
ing together  can  build  cities,  create  school  systems, 
and  make  states.     The  teacher  must  manage  patrons 
as  well   as  pupils.     He  is  the  natural  leader  in  all 
educational  matters.     Success  depends  on  the  hearty 
co-operation  of  all.     At  every  step  tact  is  demanded, 
and  often  the  teacher  must  seem  to  follow  while  really 
leading. 

(2)  As  a  manager  the  teacher  needs  a  double  por- 
tion of  tact  horn  of  wisdom.     Evils  must  be  met  and 
conquered  one  by  one.     Misconduct  must  be  made 
the  occasion  for  deepening  the  love  of  right.     Every 
incident  must  be  turned  to  advantage.     Even  oppo- 
sition must  be  made  helpful,  as  contrary  winds  are 
made  to  waft  the  ship  across  the  sea.     The  angry 


102  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

parent  who  comes  to  make  trouble  must  be  sent  away 
a  friend  and  helper.  The  exuberant  life  of  the  young 
must  be  made  educative.  Wise  management  makes 
the  difference  between  success  and  failure. 

(3)  The  educator  must  exercise  the  utmost  tact. 
Whom  to  help  and  when  to  help  and  how  to  help  are 
momentous  considerations.  The  end  in  view  is  to 
generate  in  the  pupil  a  deep  love  of  learning  and  to 
foster  self-effort.  The  pupil  must  be  educated  to 
work  out  his  own  salvation.  The  work  must  be 
adapted  to  each  pupil,  and  each  one  must  be  encour- 
aged to  do  his  best.  Right  methods  and  right  habits 
of  study  are  to  be  cherished.  In  a  word,  the  art  of 
teaching  requires  boundless  tact.  It  is  easy  for  a  tact- 
ful teacher  to  govern  well,  for  he  manages  to  make 
everything  help.  Tact  is  the  managing  factor  in 
teacher  governing  power. 

9.  Bearing. — Assert  leadership  by  your  bearing. 
Quietness  with  confidence  is  the  ninth  element  of  edu- 
cative governing  power.  There  is  a  dignity  of  bear- 
ing and  a  quietness  of  manner  which  we  always  asso- 
ciate with  conscious  strength,  as  there  is  a  nervous 
anxiety  and  ill-temper  which  we  invariably  attribute 
to  a  lack  of  confidence  in  one's  position  or  to  a  very 
superficial  character.  The  bearing  of  the  teacher 
either  commands  or  forfeits  the  respect  and  confidence 
of  the  pupils  and  patrons.  The  loud,  fussy  teacher 
offends,  and  the  weak,  doubting,  wavering  teacher 
awakens  contempt.  The  bearing  of  Washington  was 
such  that  he  never  needed  to  command  ;  his  request  was 
law.  So  should  it  be  with  the  teacher.  It  is  easy  for 
a  quiet  and  confident  teacher  to  govern  well,  for  he 


EDUCATIVE  MOTIVES.  103 

seems  born  to  rule.     Bearing  is  the  inspiring  factor 
in  teacher  governing  power. 


CHAPTEE  XL 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    EDUCATIVE    MOTIVES. 

GOVERNMENT  is  the  power  of  control  that  pro- 
duces and  sustains  order,  but  school  government  is 
much  more  :  it  educates  pupils  to  habitual  good  con- 
duct and  effective  study ;  it  organizes  order,  and 
through  educative  incentives  leads  pupils  into  habits 
of  law-abiding  self-control.  Doing  right  acts  from 
right  motives  educates. 

Motives  in  the  Soul  Economy  are  Incentives. — Ideas 
occasion  emotions  ;  emotions  occasion  purposes  ;  pur- 
poses occasion  acts.  Ideas  awaken  desires  and  so  be- 
come incentives  to  acts.  A  self  is  rational  as  well 
as  free,  and  hence  acts  from  motives.  Ideas  become 
desires  and  purposes,  and  so  move  us  to  do.  Motives 
are  at  once  our  incentives  to  do  and  the  explanation 
of  our  acts.  Even  the  child  answers  "  Because  "  when 
asked  why  it  did  so. 

Through  Motives  we  lead. — Motives  are  induce- 
ments to  act.  Weak  motives  are  slight  inducements 
and  strong  motives  are  powerful  incentives.  From 
infancy  up  pupils  are  led  through  motives,  for  they 
are  free  and  rational.  In  governing,  as  in  teaching, 
we  study  to  reach  effectively  each  individual.  A 
large  per  cent  of  our  pupils  want  to  do  the  right 


104  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

thing,  and  will  make  a  strong  effort  to  do  it  under 
any  and  all  circumstances ;  another  class  will  be  in- 
fluenced almost  entirely  by  the  good  or  the  vicious 
environments  ;  while  in  most  schools  will  be  found  a 
few  positively  vicious  pupils.  Well-disposed  pupils 
respond  to  all  right  motives ;  weak  pupils  need  all 
helpful  influences  and  effective  incentives;  vicious 
pupils  must  be  transformed  by  teacher  kindness  and 
teacher  tact.  All  pupils  may  be  led  by  right  incen- 
tives, but  great  wisdom  is  needed  in  the  choice  of 
motives,  and  great  skill  is  needed  in  presenting  in- 
centives. 

The  Teacher  determines  Pupil  Motives. — It  is  a  so- 
cial axiom  that  one  person  may  influence  the  conduct 
of  another.  All  reforms  as  well  as  all  debasements 
rest  on  this  fact.  You  stand  for  the  best  in  the  life 
of  the  pupil ;  you  determine  his  studies  and  largely  his 
companionship.  Through  your  example  and  through 
stories  and  through  all  lessons  and  through  books  you 
give  direction  to  his  thoughts  and  impulses,  and 
awaken  ennobling  desires  and  high  purposes.  You, 
more  than  all  others,  lead  pupils  to  cherish  high 
ideals  and  strive  to  realize  them.  You  are  the  pupil's 
friend,  and  in  a  high  sense  determine  the  incentives 
which  control  in  pupil  life.  Yours  is  a  fearful  re- 
sponsibility, but  each  pupil  rightly  led  by  you  will 
prove  a  blessing  to  society  and  will  be  a  star  in  your 
unfading  crown. 

Motives  help  or  hurt. — Incentives  that  lead  to  right 
acts  are  educative  motives,  but  allurements  to  wrong 
doing  are  debasing  motives.  Rulers  of  pupils  as  well 
as  the  rulers  of  men  need  to  study  the  whole  gamut 


EDUCATIVE   MOTIVES.  105 

of  motives.  What  motives  help,  and  do  not  hurt  ? 
What  motives  hurt,  and  do  not  help  ?  These  are  in- 
cisive questions  which  we  must  answer.  Are  we  in 
our  school  work  leading  our  pupils  through  the  most 
helpful  motives  ?  Are  some  of  the  incentives  we  use 
hurtful  ?  Let  us  honestly  re-examine  the  very  foun- 
dations of  our  work.  Think  what  it  means  to  your 
pupils.  Proper  incentives  to  good  conduct  and  help- 
ful study  make  for  a  grand  manhood,  but  improper 
inducements  work  ruin.  Our  school  work  must  be 
permeated  by  the  very  spirit  of  high  motives.  We 
must  root  out  at  any  cost  every  hurtful  or  even 
doubtful  school  incentive  ;  then  we  can  hopefully 
work  to  get  our  pupils  to  act  habitually  from  right 
motives. 

SCHOOL  INCENTIVES. 

Our  pupils,  like  ourselves,  are  very  human.  In 
most  cases  they  do  not  mean  to  do  wrong,  but  all  feel 
good  and  bad  impulses,  and  often  act  thoughtlessly,  as 
the  brutes  do.  But  soon  all  learn  to  consider  before 
doing,  and  it  is  these  purposed  acts  that  hurt  or  help. 
Incentives  to  helpful  acts  are  educative  motives,  but 
incentives  to  hurtful  acts  are  debasing  motives.  Our 
highest  mission  is  to  lead  our  pupils  to  act  from  edu- 
cative motives.  For  school  purposes  it  seems  fitting 
to  group  pupil  incentives  as  hurtful,  low,  high, 
highest. 

1.  Hurtful  Motives. — Incentives  to  debasing  acts 
are  hurtful,  motives.  The  cravings  of  the  appetites 
arid  tneimperious  demands  of  the  passions  become 
debasing  incentives  when  they  allure  to  lawless  acts. 
One  who  habitually  yields  to  these  incentives  brutal- 


106  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

izes  himself.  Temptations  to  violate  law — hygienic, 
social,  moral — are  hurtful  motives.  Yielding  to 
temptation  gives  us  a  world  full  of  degraded  human 
beings.  The  greatest  thing  in  education  is  to  train 
pupils  to  habits  of  law-abiding  self-control.  Through 
educative  motives  we  lead  our  pupils  to  resist  hurtful 
allurements  and  overcome  temptations.  Incentives 
to  .selfish  acts  are  hurtful  motives.  A  selfish  man  is 
a  base  man.  One  who  regards  not  man  nor  God  is 
low  indeed.  Selfishness  is  the  sum  of  everything  de- 
testable. Yielding  habitually  to  selfish  incentives 
makes  one  mean,  ungenerous,  heartless.  Through 
love  and  all  generous  and  kindly  incentives  we  lead 
our  pupils  to  root  selfishness  out  of  their  lives. 

2.  Low  Motives, — Incentives  based  on  low  con- 
siderations are  low  motives.  Their  name  is  legion. 
Low  motives  unavoidably  tend  to  become  hurtful,  and 
at  most,  when  permissible,  are  temporary  expedients. 
They  are  not  educative.  They  do  not  make  for  man- 
hood. Fear  is  a  low  motive,  but  love  casts  out  fear. 
Prizes,  per-cent  marks  for  conduct  and  scholarship, 
and  all  rivalry-fostering  distinctions  are  low  incen- 
tives that  tend  to  become  hurtful.  Extraneous  in- 
centives to  good  conduct  and  effective  study  must  be 
counted  as  low  and  hurtful  motives. 

"  I  have  been  thirty-five  years  in  the  schoolroom  as  pupil  and 
teacher ;  have  lived  a  good  part  of  that  time  in  the  atmosphere 
of  prizes  and  per  cents ;  have  watched  their  false  spur  and  un- 
natural colouring  of  character  ;  have  looked  upon  noble  ambition 
perverted  to  things  abnormal ;  have  seen  the  physical,  intellec- 
tual, and  moral  wreckage  that  ensued ;  and  as  the  result  of  per- 
sonal investigation  and  personal  experience,  I  do  not  hesitate  to 
pronounce  the  whole  system  of  incentives,  to  which  reference  has 


107 


108  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

been  made,  as  abnormal,  unprofitable,  false,  and  immoral.  Their 
entire  tendency  is  to  temporary  results,  to  stifled  interest,  to  the 
recognition  of  an  unnatural  means  as  an  end,  to  the  development 
of  a  selfish  spirit,  and  to  dishonest  practice,  as  well  as  to  over- 
prgs>ure  and  overnervous  and  physical  strain." — R.  W.  SEARCH. 

3.  High  Motives. — Incentives  that  make  for  man- 
hood are  high  motives".  Habitually  acting  from  high 
incentives  develops  a  noble  manhood.* 

(1)  We  appeal  to  self-incentives.     These  are  in- 
centives   to   self-betterments.       Our    loving    Father 
plans  each  life,  and  implants  in  each  one  burning  de- 
sires to  make  the  most  of  that  life.     All  right  incen- 
tives to  self-betterment  tend  to  ennoble.     The  pupil 
desires  to  stand  well,  desires  esteem,  desires  approval 
because  he  is  worthy  ;  no  marks  or  reports  are  need- 
ed ;  only  approving  smiles   and  encouraging  words. 
The  deserving  pupil  feels  that  he  stands  well.     The 
pupil  desires  knowledge  for  its  own  sake  ;  this  is  the 
divine  incentive  to  study.     Our  pupils  are  intensely 
interested,  for  we  lead  them  to  find  out.     All  extrane- 
ous incentives  to  study  or  to  duty  are  hurtful.     True 
teaching  commands  attention  and  sustains    interest. 
The  pupil  desires  power,  desires   efficiency,  that  he 
may  act  well  his  part.     As  our  model,  Jesus  lived  a 
perfect  life  and  taught  us  to  work  on  toward  perfec- 
tion.    A  noble  aim  is  a  high  incentive  to  a  noble  life. 
The  pupil  does  his  best  to-day  that  he  may  be  able  to 
do  better  to-morrow.     We  do  well  to  encourage  and 
give  wise  direction  to  the  aspirations  of  our  pupils. 

(2)  We  appeal  to  altruistic  incentives — incentives 
to  social  betterment.     The  greatest  of  these  is  love. 

*  Royal  Incentives,  E.  E.  White,  p.  153,  School  Management. 


EDUCATIVE   MOTIVES.  109 

Love  and  duty  are  twin  sisters,  and  go  hand  in  hand. 
Pupil  love  responds  to  teacher  love.  Love  makes 
duty  easy.  Beautiful  friendships  elevate.  Generos- 
ity makes  real  heroes.  Kindness  is  a  crown  of  glory. 
We  think  of  God  as  our  loving  Father,  and  of  all  men 
as  our  brothers.  God  is  love,  and  in  the  ratio  that 
we  become  Godlike  our  motives  become  altruistic. 
Nothing  appeals  more  strongly  to  most  pupils  than 
the  fact  that  they  can  help  the  teacher  and  help  their 
fellow-pupils.  Kindness,  generosity,  friendship,  grati- 
tude, and  reverence  grow  into  life  habits. 

4.  Highest  Motives. — Incentives  of  the  true,  the 
beautiful,  the  good,  are  the  highest  motives.  We 
rise  above  egoistic  and  altruistic  considerations,  and 
act  from  cosmic  motives.  We  love  the  higher  life. 

(1)  Truth  is  a  powerful  incentive.     The   search 
for  truth,  the  desire  to  impart  truth,  and  the  earnest 
effort  to  live  truth,  are  in  the  highest  degree  enno- 
bling.    The  pursuit  of  truth  dignifies  life  and  gives  the 
highest  joy.     No  one  wonders  that  the  mightiest  men 
devote  their  lives  to  this  pursuit.     We  lead  our  pupils 
to  find  truth,  and  so  they  get  to  hunger  and  thirst  for 
truth.     No  other  incentive  to  study  is  so  strong  and 
so  elevating.     The  ideal  school  is  verity  embodied. 
No  shams,  no  pretenses,  no  lies,  are  tolerated.     The 
teacher  feels  truth,  looks  truth,  speaks  truth,  acts  truth. 
The  pupils  become  truthful,  for  they  breathe  an  at- 
mosphere of  truth. 

(2)  Beauty  is  a  mighty  incentive.     No  one  knows 
how  largely  his  life  is  affected  by  the  beautiful,  the 
sublime,  and  the  humorous.     The  beautiful  and  sub- 
lime in  Nature  and  art  and  literature  do  much  to  re- 


HO  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

fine  and  elevate.  "We  lead  our  pupils  to  appreciate 
beauty  and  to  produce  beauty.  Each  one  studies  to 
keep  himself  clean  and  neat.  Each  one  in  song  and 
speech  and  movement  and  drawing  and  moulding  cre- 
ates beauty.  Each  one  feels  exaltation  as  he  becomes 
absorbed  in  Homer  and  Dante  and  Milton.  Above 
all,  each  one  endeavours  to  live  a  beautiful  life.  The 
sense  of  honesty  and  honour  is  beautiful. 

(3)  Duty  is  the  supreme  incentive.  Acting  solely 
from  a  sense  of  duty,  doing  right  because  it  is  right, 
does  most  to  ennoble.  Man  is  a  constitutional  sover- 
eign and  reigns  through  law.  The  universe  is  so 
planned  that  all  good  comes  through  law-obeying. 
Duty  is  doing  right  from  right  motives.  Man  is  a 
constitutional  sovereign,  and  reigns  by  doing  right. 
Above  all,  education  develops  the  duty  habit. 

We  begin  with  the  infant.  Obey,  is  the  only  item 
in  its  ethics.  Somehow  it  gets  to  feel  that  it  ought 
to  obey  its  parents.  This  is  the  budding  of  conscience, 
the  beginning  of  a  life  of  duty.  To  the  child,  paren- 
tal will  is  law,  is  right.  As  the  loving  mother  trains 
the  little  one  to  walk,  so  she  trains  it  to  obey. 

We  train  the  child  to  do  right.  It  gets  to  feel 
that  it  ought  to  do  right — ought  to  obey  its  parent, 
its  teacher,  and  its  school  laws.  Parents  and  teacher 
manage  to  get  the  child  to  obey  willingly,  thus  edu- 
cating conscience  and  will.  No  theories,  no  dogmas, 
no  arguments,  no  rods,  are  permissible.  Lovingly 
lead  the  child  into  habits  of  law-abiding. 

We  lead  the  older  pupils  to  strengthen  law-abid- 
ing habits.  The  pupil's  ethics  widen  and  widen. 
God  is  always  the  loving  Father  and  the  beneficent 


EDUCATIVE   MOTIVES.  ill 

lawgiver.  Jesus  and  the  teacher  are  always  the  dear- 
est friends.  Law-abiding  self-control  is  always  the 
greatest  thing.  Duty  dignifies  and  re-enforces  all 
other  proper  motives.  The  pupil  very  much  wishes 
to  do  something.  "  Is  it  right  ?  "  "  Yes."  "  Then 
thank  God  and  do  it." 

WHAT  MOTIVES. 

School  management  is  the  art  of  securing  good 
conduct  and  efficient  study  through  high  motives. 
When  seen  from  the  standpoint  of  duty,  all  is  plain  to 
teacher  and  pupils.  Like  instruction,  motives  must 
be  adapted  to  individual  pupils.  It  is  safe  to  rely 
upon  the  highest  incentive  which  will  move  the  pupil. 
Duty  and  justice  and  generosity  and  the  desire  for 
betterment  and  the  sense  of  honour,  in  most  cases,  will 
prove  all-sufficient  to  induce  good  conduct  and  efficient 
study.  Some  pupils,  however,  must  be  led  for  a  time 
through  other  motives,  such  as  approval,  public  opin- 
ion, and  consequences.  The  earnest  effort  must  be  to 
secure  right  conduct,  but  when  a  pupil  has  gone  wrong 
he  must  be  brought  back  to  the  path  of  duty  through 
educative  suffering. 

Incentives  conflict.  Our  appetites  and  passions 
and  selfish  impulses  entice  us  to  do  debasing  acts, 
while  all  ennobling  incentives  move  us  to  do  right. 
This  irrepressible  conflict  goes  on  in  every  human 
heart. 

One  victory  strengthens,  and  many  victories  root 
right  doing  into  habit.  In  this  momentous  battle  the 
teacher  deeply  sympathizes  with  the  pupil,  and  does 
everything  possible  to  strengthen  him  ;  and  in  case 


112  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

he  goes  wrong  he  gently  leads  him  through  educative 
motives  back  to  the  path  of  duty. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT    THROUGH    EDUCATIVE    SCHOOL 
REGULATIONS. 

We  think  of  the  School  as  an  Embryo  State. — The 

pupils  are  trained  to  make  laws  and  obey  them,  and 
are  thus  educated  for  citizenship.     The  ideal  school  is 
an  embryo  republic,  in  which   the  prime  object  of 
government  is  to  educate  the  pupils  up  to  self-gov 
ernment.     The  school  life  thus  becomes  a  training  f 
good  citizenship.     Pupils  develop  the  habits  of  r 
restraint,  self-control,  and  self-mastery,  and  these 
the  highest  products  of  education.     The  school  be 
comes  an  impressive  object  lesson  of  the  reign  of  law 
and  of  the  great  truth  that  all  good  conies  of  la^ 
abiding. 

Wise  Laws  are  Fundamental — The  old  schoolman 
ter  was  a  despot,  and  with  all  his  rules  and  all  his  rods 
has  passed  away.  Though  often  a  blundering  tyrant, 
he  did  what  he  could.  Peace  to  his  ashes!  The 
teacher  is  not  a  boss.  The  goody-goody  teacher, 
with  no  laws  and  no  punishments,  is  the  opposite  j 
extreme  and  is  a  well-meaning  failure.  The  teacher 
is  not  a  sentimental  weakling.  The  true  teacher, 
through  educative  regulations  leading  up  to  self -con- 


EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL  REGULATIONS.  H3 

trol  and  law-abiding  habits,  is  the  golden  mean.     The 
teacher  is  the  friend  and  leader. 

PRINCIPLES  DETERMINE  LAWS. 

Not  caprice,  but  educative  principles  determine 
school  regulations.     What  laws  will  prove  most  help- 
ful ?     What  regulations  will  best  prepare  the  pupil 
or  life  ?     The  following  guiding  truths  will  enable 
us  to  answer  these  questions. 

1.  School  Regulations  must  be  Educative. — School 
laws  are  made  for  the  pupil,  just  as  the  Sabbath  was 
made  for  man.     Everything  to  help  and  nothing  to 
hinder  is  fundamental.     Liberty  through  law  is  the 
aim.     Orderly  freedom  is  the  ideal.     In  the  school 
world  each  pupil  is  kept  in  touch  with  the  ideal,  and 
'8  trained  to  habitually  do  the  things  that  help  and 

void  the  things  that  hurt.     The  school  code  must  be 
Dative. 

2.  School  Laws  must  be  Positive. — "  Do,  and  therein 
have   well-being."     "  Shall    not "    characterized    the 
-ules  of  the  old  schoolmaster;  but  in  the  new  order 

f  things  doing  the  right  takes  the  place  of  forbid- 
ing  the  wrong.  "  Happy  are  they  that  do  his  com- 
mandments."  School  regulations  are  educative,  and 
hence  positive.  "  Be  prompt "  takes  the  place  of 
"  Must  not  be  tardy."  "  Be  truthful "  takes  the  place 
of  "  Must  not  tell  lies."  The  school  code  is  positive. 

3.  School  Regulations  must  be  Few,  and  hence  Gen- 
eral— They  are  to  be  such  as  apply  to  all  schools  and 
all  pupils.     They  must  require  lines  of  conduct  and 
must  cover  all  the  ground.     All  specific  cases  come 
under  the  general  laws,  so  that  it  may  never  become 

9 


114  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

necessary  to  make  new  regulations.     The  school  code 
must  be  general. 

4.  School  Laws  must  be  Practical — School  regula- 
tions are  working  laws  that  lead  to  life  habits.     They 
enter  into  the  warp  and  woof  of  school  life.     Teacher 
and  pupils  live  the  regulations,  and  thus  develop  into 
habits   the    school   virtues.     Impractical    regulations 
can  not  be  enforced,  and  laws  not  obeyed  hurt  and  do 
not  help.     The  school  code  must  be  practical. 

5.  School  Laws  must  be  Popular. — School  regula- 
tions must  be  sustained  by  public  sentiment.     They 
must  have  the  hearty  support  of  the  pupils  and  the 
patrons  as  well  as  of  the  teacher.     School  laws  must 
commend  themselves   to   the   common  sense  of  all. 
Popular  school  regulations  will  have  the  moral  sup- 
port of  the  patrons,  and  pupils  will  readily  obey  such 
laws.     The  school  code  must  be  popular. 

A  school  code  harmonizing  with  these  principles 
embodies  the  laws  of  school  life.  Each  law  is  edu- 
cative, positive,  general,  practical,  popular.  Such 
regulations  give  definiteness  to  school  government. 


Educative  School  Code. 


1.  Law  of  Quietude. 

2.  Law  of  Regularity. 

3.  Law  of  Promptitude. 

4.  Law  of  Propriety. 

5.  Law  of  Duty. 


1.  Work  quietly. — All  education  begins  in  silence, 
and  the  first  school  lesson  the  pupil  learns  is  that  of 
quietude.  Above  the  teacher's  desk  "  Work  quietly  " 
should  be  written  large ;  but  the  quietness  of  pleasant 
work  is  meant,  and  not  the  breathless  stillness  pro- 
duced by  fear.  Teacher  and  pupils  study  to  do  things 
so  softly  as  not  to  disturb  others.  Quietude  must  be 


EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL  REGULATIONS.  H5 

the  law  of  the  schoolroom.  Teacher  and  pupils  study 
to  avoid  whatever  disturbs  others,  such  as  whispering, 
noisy  studying,  noisy  moving,  fixing  fires,  and  loud 
talking.  Stillness  favours  study  and  characterizes  the 
ideal  school. 

2.  Attend  Regularly. — Teacher  and  pupils  must  be 
regular  in  all  school  work.     Persistency  is  the  law  of 
achievement.     In  school  work,  as  in  life  work,  regu- 
larity is  fundamental.     The  habit  of  regularity  pro- 
motes  our   physical,   mental,  and   moral   well-being. 
Regularity  is  a  cardinal  school  virtue. 

3.  Be  Prompt. — Teacher  and  pupils  must  be  prompt. 
The  habit  of  being  on  time  is  invaluable.     The  school 
trains  pupils  to  work  to  a  programme,  and  prompti 
tude  is  counted  a  leading  virtue.     Promptitude  char- 
acterizes the  world's  workers.    Regularity  and  prompt- 
itude are  the  basis  of  order.     They  are  the  pillars  of 
good  school  government. 

4.  Act  properly. — Teacher  and  pupils  must  act  with 
propriety.     We  think  of   good    manners   as   proper 
conduct.     Order  is  eminently  proper.     During  school 
hours  it  is  proper  that  pupils  should  communicate 
through   the   teacher.     Kindness   is   proper,   earnest 
study  is  proper,  decorum  is  proper.     This  law  covers 
much  of  conduct  and  leads  to  the  formation  of  many 
desirable  habits.     Conduct   worthy   of   a  pupil   and 
worthy  of  a  gentlewoman  or  a  gentleman  is  required 
by  the  law  of  propriety. 

5.  Do  right. — Teacher  and  pupils  must  do  right. 
The  duty  impulses  are  imperative.     1  may  be  polite, 
but  I  must  be  truthful.     Duty  is  the  corner  stone  of 
the  art  of  school  management.     The  habit  of  doing 


116  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

what  we  believe  we  ought  to  do  is  the  essence  of 
character  growing.  Conscience  stands  for  duty,  and 
doing  right  stands  for  law-abiding. 

ENACTING  THE  LAWS. 

The  pupils,  the  teacher,  and  the  school  board 
make  the  school  regulations.  The  school  is  an  em- 
bryo State.  The  teacher  and  the  pupils  enact  their 
own  organic  laws.  Pupils  are  trained  to  make,  obey, 
and  sustain  laws.  School  life  thus  prepares  for  real 
life. 

1.  The    Teacher     submits    the    Regulations. — The 
teacher  submits  and  explains  the  regulations  one  by 
one.     The  teacher  is  the  friend  and  leader,  and  it  is 
fitting  that  he   should  propose   educative   laws   and 
make  clear  their  desirability.     Explanations  and  illus- 
trations are  brief  and  plain. 

2.  Teacher    and   Pupils   adopt  the    Regulations. — 
They  unite  in  enacting  laws  for  the  school.     The  pu- 
pils are  led  to  favour  the  regulations  and  to  realize  in 
some  degree  their  fitness.     It  is  important  to  have 
even  the  younger  pupils  feel  that  they  in  a  degree 
make  the  laws  which  they  are  to  obey,  just  as  the 
people  make  their  laws. 

3.  The  School  Board  approves  the  Regulations. — It 
is  well  in  small  schools  to  have  the  school  board  pres- 
ent, but  otherwise  the  action  of  the  board  approving 
the  regulations  can  be  reported  to  the  pupils.     The 
school  board  stands  for  the  State,  and  regulations  thus 
approved  become  State  laws,  as  do  bills  passed  by  the 
Legislature  and  signed  by  the  governor. 


EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL  REGULATIONS. 


117 


4.  The  Regulations  are  adopted  One  by  One. — Some 
impressive  method  of  adopting  the  code  is  helpful. 
It  is  the  first  day  of  school.  The  leading  classes  have 
been  organized  and  lessons  assigned.  The  afternoon 
recess  is  over.  Pupils  are  still  fresh  and  happy. 
The  members  of  the  school  board  or  school  commit- 
tee are  present.  Attention  is  called  to  the  pro- 
gramme. Then  in  some  attractive  way  the  pupils  are 
led  to  appreciate  and  adopt  the  school  code.  It  is  an 
impressive  plan  to  draw  on  the  board  a  picture  of 
the  hand,  and  to  write  the  laws  on  the  fingers  as 
they  are  adopted.  Close  attention  is  thus  secured 
and  held. 


Teacher. — Pupils,  that  we  may  have  good  order 
and  good  work  we  must  have  good  regulations.  I 
think  we  can  place  on  the  fingers  of  one  hand  all  the 
laws  we  shall  need.  I  want  you  to  unite  with  me  in 


118  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

making  our  school  regulations.  Do  you  think  the 
teacher  should  work  quietly  ?  (Pupils  all  raise  hands.) 
Should  pupils  work  quietly  ?  (All  hands  are  raised.) 
Will  you  join  with  me  in  making  "  Work  quietly  " 
one  of  our  school  regulations  ?  (All  raise  hands.) 
Now  I  will  ask  all  who  will  unite  with  me  in  adopt- 
ing "  Work  quietly  "  as  one  of  our  laws,  to  stand.  I 
am  glad  to  see  you  all  stand.  Now  please  raise  your 
left  hand.  Now  write  on  your  little  finger,  as  I  do 
on  the  board,  "  Work  quietly." 

Each  of  the  regulations  is  considered  and  adopted 
in  a  similar  way.  Thus  in  half  an  hour  the  school 
code  may  be  intelligently  and  impressively  adopted. 
The  members  of  the  school  board  will  sign  the  pre- 
pared code  in  the  presence  of  the  school,  thus  giving 
their  sanction  and  influence  to  the  laws  adopted.  The 
code  hand  is  left  on  the  board,  and  as  new  pupils  come 
in  they  are  led  to  assent  to  the  regulations. 

The  pupils  come  to  regard  the  regulations  as  their 
laws,  and  hence  learn  to  cheerfully  obey  and  readily 
sustain  them.  The  true  idea  of  school  government  is 
thus  realized.  The  governing  force  is  from  within, 
and  not  from  without.  Pupils  develop  the  power  of 
self-control  and  the  habit  of  law-abiding.  The  best 
possible  foundation  is  laid  for  educative  school  gov- 
ernment and  for  good  citizenship. 


EDUCATIVE  LAW-ABIDING.  H9 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

PUPIL    BETTERMENT   THROUGH    EDUCATIVE    LAW-ABIDING. 

The  Teacher  controls  up  to  Self-control — School 
management  is  eminently  the  art  of  developing  habits 
of  law-abiding  self-control.  The  pupils  learn  to  think 
of  the  school  as  a  larger  self,  and  of  law-abiding  as 
self-obedience.  All  wise  school  work  is  educative, 
but  good  conduct  in  obedience  to  self-imposed  laws  is 
the  educational  superlative.  The  practical  realization 
of  this  vital  truth  will  mark  an  educational  epoch. 

Order  is  Cheerful  Law-abiding. — Order  is  fitness. 
The  school  code,  written  or  unwritten,  voices  the  fit- 
ness of  school  conduct.  The  teacher  leads  the  pupils 
to  live  the  organic  laws  of  the  school  and  thus  develop 
law-abiding  habits.  This  is  what  is  meant  by  good 
order.  The  old  schoolmaster  enforced  his  rules,  but 
the  true  teacher  governs  up  to  self-government. 

LAW  OF  QUIET  WORK. 

We  will  learn  to  work  quietly. — Real  education 
begins  in  silence.  To  keep  still  is  the  first  school 
lesson.  Each  one  learns  to  so  work  as  not  to  disturb 
others.  School  work  is  educative  in  the  ratio  of  ear- 
nest work  done  quietly.  How  may  we  best  develop 
habits  of  working  quietly  ? 

1.  The  Conditions  must  favour  Quietude.  We 
plan  to  make  quiet  work  easy.  Single  adjustable 
desks  are  first  thought  of,  as  they  secure  isolation  and 
comfort.  Writing  tablets  as  substitutes  for  slates  are 


120  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

the  next  suggestion.  Doors  made  to  open  and  close 
silently  are  the  third  consideration.  The  hourly  re- 
cess is  fourth  in  the  list,  as  it  does  so  much  to  make 
quiet  work  delightful.  Pure  air,  abundant  light,  and 
proper  temperature  are  essentials.  Fixing  fires,  get- 
ting drinks,  sharpening  pencils,  asking  questions,  are 
recess  incidents.  Teacher,  you  will  do  well  to  make 
a  long  pause  here.  Tact  will  save  you  a  world  of 
trouble. 

2.  JBy  .Example  the  Teacher  must  impress  Quie- 
tude.   By  working  quietly  the  teacher  best  leads  the 
pupils  to  do  quiet  work.     "  Learn  to  work  quietly  " 
is  written   large  above   the  teacher's  desk,  and   the 
teacher  embodies  this  law.     He  speaks  and  moves  and 
works  quietly.     His  management  is  energetic  and  his 
teaching  is  full  of  vigour,  but  he  keeps  in  mind  that 
it  is  the  lightning,  and  not  the  thunder,  that   kills. 
He  avoids  boisterousness,  clapping,  pounding,  stamp- 
ing, scolding.    A  loud  teacher  will  likely  have  a  noisy 
school.     Such  a  teacher  is  a  school  nuisance  and  should 
be  reformed  or  abated.     The  quiet,  earnest  teacher  is 
a  treasure. 

3.  Utilize  Altruistic  Incentives  to  Quiet  Work. 
Each  pupil  desires  the  good  of  all.     No  one  wishes  to 
work  injury  to  another.     Working  quietly  helps  and 
does  not  hurt.     It  cultivates  generosity  and  good  will. 
Pupils  abstain  from  whispering  because  it  works  in- 
jury to  others,  and  each  one  comes  to  feel  the  school 
spirit — to  help  and  not  hurt. 

4.  Training  Pupils  to  Habits  of  Quietude  is  essen- 
tial.    Lead  the  pupil  to  work  quietly  until  quietude 
becomes  a  habit.     Each  one  learns  to  study  quietly,  to 


EDUCATIVE  LAW-ABIDING.  121 

move  quietly,  to  speak  softly.  "When  the  pupil  does 
anything  noisily  he  is  requested  to  do  it  again  quietly. 
Soon  the  pupils  become  toned  down,  and  come  to 
speak  softly  and  move  quietly.  They  learn  to  abstain 
from  whispering  and  other  disturbing  noises,  for  these 
are  felt  as  grating  discords. 

5.  Breaking  up  Noisy  Habits  is  necessary.     Ex- 
ample, altruistic  incentives,  and  training  will  work 
wonders   in  transforming   noisy   children  into  quiet 
pupils.     In  some  cases,  however,  gentle  reproof   or 
some  deprivation  is  necessary  to  work  a  cure.     The 
pupil  must  be  led  to  think  and  try.     The  desire  and 
determination  to  have  a  delightfully  quiet  school  .is 
felt  in  every  nerve  and  fibre  of  the  school.     Pupils 
and  teacher  work  together  to  this  end. 

6.  Persistent  Endeavour  develops  Quiet  Tidbits. 
The  teacher  manages  to  have  a  cheerful  and  quiet  school. 
Patiently,  kindly,  persistently  the  work  goes  on  day 
by  day  and  week  by  week.     All  learn  to  work  quietly, 
and  each  one  comes  to  feel  a  pleasure  in  quiet  work. 
Our  ideal   is  a  quiet,  cheerful,  working  school,  and 
we  all,  pupils  and  teacher,  feel  proud  when  we  realize 
our  ideal.     This  is  order ;  this  is  real  education. 

LAW  OF  REGULARITY. 

We  will  strive  to  be  Regular. — Regularity  char- 
acterizes the  world's  successful  workers.  The  octo- 
genarian, in  most  cases,  ascribes  to  regular  habits  his 
long  life.  The  great  leaders  of  men  in  all  fields  of 
high  endeavour  are  regular  workers.  Regularity  is 
one  of  the  cardinal  school  virtues,  and  to  root  regu- 
larity into  a  life  habit  is  an  important  educational 


122  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

achievement.     How  may  we  best  lead  our  pupils  into 
habits  of  regularity  ? 

1.  Teacher  Example  is  Most  Potent.     A  teacher  is 
a  fit  pupil  leader  when  he  is  a  model  of  regularity. 
He  follows  a  well-considered  plan,  duly  proportioning 
work,  recreation,  and  rest.     His  school  work  is  an  ob- 
ject lesson  of  regularity.     Pupils  are  bound  to  make 
the  most  of  themselves,  and   so  must   be  trained  to 
regularity.     They  must  cultivate  the  habit  of   regu- 
larity in  their  studies,  in  their  reading,  in  their  exer- 
cises, in  their  amusements,  in  their  eating,  and  in  their 
sleeping  as  well  as  in  their  school  work.     By  his  own 
example,  and  by  the  stories  of  Washington  and  Kant 
and   Gladstone,  the   pupils   are    stimulated   to  form 
habits  of  regularity. 

2.  Interest  leads  to  Regularity.     The  school  work 
is  made  so  interesting  and  the  lessons  are  made  so 
helpful  that  pupils  are  unwilling  to  miss  a  single  hour. 
The   habit   of   regular   attendance   is   formed.      The 
pupils  are  led  to  realize  that  vigorous  health  depends  on 
regular  physical  habits,  and  that  mental  vigour  depends 
on  regular  habits  of  study.     Especially  are  pupils  im- 
pressed with  the  importance  of  regular  attendance  in 
order  to  have  good  school  work.     But,  after  all,  inter- 
est  is   the   great  incentive.     School  stupidity  works 
irregularity. 

3.  The  Irregular  must   suffer  the  Consequences. 
Irregularity  hurts  the  individual  and  hurts  the  school. 
It  is  a  misfortune  in  any  case,  and  the  irregular  pupil 
must  suffer  the  consequences.     The  habit  of  irregu- 
larity  must  in  some  way  be  cured.     Self-incentives 
and  altruistic  motives  and  duty  may  be  pressed,  but  in 


EDUCATIVE  LAW-ABIDING.  123 

rare  cases,  after  all,  reproof,  deprivation,  or  even  tem- 
porary suspension,  may  become  judicious.  In  some 
way  irregularity  must  be  broken  up,  and  the  pupil 
must  be  led  to  form  the  habit  of  regularity. 

LAW  OF  PROMPTITUDE. 

We  will  try  to  be  prompt. — As  a  school  virtue,  the 
habit  of  promptitude  deserves  to  be  written  in  letters 
of  gold.  It  is  a  great  thing  to  be  habitually  on  time. 
Promptitude  is  counted  so  important  that  schools  vie 
with  each  other  in  the  effort  to  secure  it.  How 
may  we  best  educate  our  pupils  to  habits  of  prompti- 
tude ? 

1.  Teacher  Promptitude  incites  Pupil  Prompti- 
tude.    "  In  seven  years  I  have  never  been   tardy," 
said  an  earnest  teacher.     "  During  my  entire  course  in 
college  I  was  never  tardy,"  said  Garfield.     School  is 
called  and  dismissed  on  time.     Each  exercise  is  begun 
and  closed  promptly.     A  prompt  teacher  will  usually 
have  a  prompt  school.     The  prompt  teacher  can  con- 
sistently insist  on  pupil  promptitude.     Examples  of 
promptitude  from  the  lives  of  men  of  action  will  re- 
enforce  the  example  of  the  teacher. 

2.  Promptitude  helps  Others.     Promptitude  is  a 
social  as  well  as  a  personal  virtue.     Washington  thus 
reproved  a  tardy  subordinate  :  "  Sir,  you  may  choose 
to  waste  your  own  time,  but  you  have  no  right  to 
waste   ours."     The   prompt  pupil    helps  others.     In 
life,  promptitude  is  a  charm  and  tardiness  an  offense. 
In  the  home,  meals  are  served  on  time.     In  the  church, 
services  begin  and  close  on  time  and  no  laggard  dis- 
turbs the  worshippers.     In  the  orderly  school,  teacher 


124  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

and  pupils  are  habitually  on  time,  and  rarely  does  a 
tardy  pupil  interrupt  the  work. 

3.  Training  fixes  the  Habit  of  Promptitude.     It 
is  easy  to  be  prompt  when  the  habit  is  formed.     You 
arouse  the  pupil  to   overcome  all   obstacles  and  be 
prompt  during  the  first  week.     It  is  less  difficult  to 
secure  promptitude  during  the  second  week,  and  still 
less  during  the  third  week.     Soon  the  pupil  becomes 
prompt  from  habit.     The  habit  of  being  prompt  has 
great  advantages,  as  may  be  illustrated  by  life  in- 
stances, showing  the  gains  from  promptitude  and  the 
misfortunes  from  dilatory  habits.     The  railroad  re- 
enforces  the  school  in  training  to  the  habit  of  prompt- 
itude. 

4.  Tardiness  must   ~be  remedied.     The  habit  of 
tardiness  must  be  broken  up  by  forming  the  habit  of 
promptitude.     We  use  all  high  motives,  and  still,  in 
rare  cases,  we  find  it  necessary  to  use  gentle  reproof, 
or  some   other  helpful   remedy.     The   wise   teacher 
makes   provision   for   special    cases,    so   that   pupils, 
though  late,  are  not  counted  tardy  up  to  a  fixed  time. 
One  pupil  in  twenty  may  require  some  impressive 
lesson,  but  usually  the  spirit  of  the  school  will  remedy 
avoidable  tardiness.     Teacher  and  pupils  greet  with 
smiles  the  prompt  pupils,  and  each  pupil  becomes  in- 
spired with  the  spirit  of  promptitude.     The  sense  of 
honour  as  well  as  the  sense  of  duty  incites  to  prompti- 
tude.    Mountains  of  difficulty  will  be  overcome,  and 
pupils  will  be  on  time.     Promptitude  in  all  the  school 
work  grows  into  habit,  and  the  pupil  is  saved  from 
the  ruinous  habit  of  tardiness. 


EDUCATIVE  LAW-ABIDING.  125 

LAW  OF  PROPRIETY. 

We  will  learn  to  act  properly. — Propriety  is  fitness 
in  conduct.  It  includes  all  we  mean  by  gentle  man- 
ners and  good  deportment  and  politeness  and  de- 
corum. It  includes  dress  and  address.  Proper 
school  conduct  prepares  for  proper  life  conduct.  Or- 
der is  proper,  and  all  disorder  is  improper.  Cleanli- 
ness and  neatness  are  proper.  Industry,  regularity, 
and  respect  for  authority  are  proper.  Law-abiding  is 
proper,  but  lawlessness  is  improper.  How  can  we 
best  develop  habits  of  propriety  ?  How  can  we  best 
educate  our  pupils  to  be  womanly  and  manly  ? 

1.  Example  impresses  Propriety.     Pupils  imitate 
others,  but  most  of  all  the  teacher.     The  ideal  teacher 
is  a  proper  person  and  a  model  of  propriety.     In 
dress  and  in  manner,  in  repose  and  in  action,  in  the 
school  and  in  society,  the  teacher  is  an  embodiment 
of  propriety.     The  teacher  is  what  the  pupil  is  to 
become. 

2.  Altruistic  Motives  work  the  Best  Results. — 
Politeness  is  treating  others  properly.     Kindness  and 
generosity  and  refinement  are  expressed  in  good  man- 
ners.    A  gentleman  is  gentle  and  unselfish.     It  is  al- 
ways proper  to  give  another  the  preference.     Teacher 
and  pupils  will  think  of  many  illustrative  incidents. 
Opportunities   occur   at   every   step  to  make  others 
happy  by  treating  them  properly.     Apt  stories  are  the 
most  helpful  lessons. 

3.  Training  fixes  Habits  of  Propriety.     Acting 
properly  must  be  rooted  into  habit.     As  we  learn  to 
pronounce  properly  and  talk  properly,  so  we  learn  to 


126  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

act  properly.  Good  school  manners  are  carried  to 
the  home  and  become  proper  table  manners  and  prop- 
er society  manners.  Immense  patience  is  needed  as 
well  as  tireless  effort,  for  bad  habits  persist.  In  every 
way  the  ideal  of  proper  conduct  is  elevated,  and  all 
influences  are  used  to  induce  pupils  to  strive  always 
to  realize  their  ideal. 

4.  Educative  Remedies  break  up  Habits  of  Im- 
propriety.    Pupils   must   unlearn    improper  habits. 
Bad  manners  must  grow  into  good   manners.     We 
meet  fearful  discouragements.     Pupils  are  loud  and 
rough  and  selfish  and  cruel.     Their  manners  at  home 
and  at  school  are  horrid.     How  are  we  to  transform 
these   rough,  untutored   children   into   accomplished 
men  and  women  ?     We  can  and  will  accomplish  this. 
In  some  way  we  must  lead  the  most  rude  to  try  to  act 
properly,  and  keep  on  so  trying  and  so  acting.     We 
warmly  approve  and  commend  proper  conduct,  and 
thoroughly  disapprove  improper  conduct.     We  lead 
the  pupil  to  take  himself  in  hand  and  go  to  work  in 
earnest.     One  by  one  offensive  habits  are  broken  up 
and  habits  of  proper  conduct  are  acquired.    But  habits 
are  stubborn  things.     However  willing,  pupils  often 
need  impressive  helps.     We  appeal  to  all  high  incen- 
tives, but  at  last,  in  exceptional  cases,  we  find  it  wise 
to  use  proper  educative  remedies. 

5.  Persistency  must  succeed.     Think  of  the  work 
it  takes  to  secure  correct  pronunciation !     How  al- 
most infinitely  more  difficult  is  it  to  secure  propriety 
in  conduct  in  all  the  relations  of  life  !     But,  however 
adverse  the  pupil's  environment,  and   however   un- 
promising this  uncouth  specimen,  we  can  not  afford 


EDUCATIVE  LAW-ABIDING.  127 

to  fail.     Wise  and  persistent  effort  has  succeeded  and 
will  succeed. 

LAW  OF  DUTY. 

We  will  try  to  do  right. — Moral  education  blended 
with  aesthetic  and  mental  and  physical  culture  is  ideal. 
Right  is  accord  with  law.  Be  law-abiding,  is  our  one 
imperative  impulse.  Our  inmost  self  incites  us  to 
lind  the  right,  to  choose  the  right,  and  to  do  the  right. 
This  is  conscience,  and  conscience  stands  for  duty. 
Acting  conscientiously  develops  conscience  just  as 
reasoning  educates  reason.  As  intellect,  self  discerns 
right,  as  conscience  self  feels  right,  and  as  will  self 
does  right.  Moral  culture  roots  the  moral  virtues  into 
moral  habits.  Conscience  is  central.  Moral  conduct 
is  the  educational  ultimate.  How  may  we  lead  our 
pupils  to  act  from  a  sense  of  duty  ? 

1.  Example  is  most  effective. — The  Great  Teacher 
lived  a  perfect  life.     His  is  the  ideal  life.     Good  men 
try  to  live  as  Jesus  lived,  and  so  become  moral  leaders. 
"  A  teacher  must  have  a  good  moral  character,"  is  the 
race  conscience  organized  into  law.     We  think  of  a 
teacher  as  embodying  in  a  good  degree  the  moral  vir- 
tues, and  hence  we  intrust  to  him  our  precious  children. 
In  every  impulse  and  word  and  act  the  ideal  teacher 
is  pure  and  honest  and  generous  and  just  and  truth- 
ful.    He  does  right  because  it  is  right.     By  his  life 
the  teacher  does  most  to  lead  his  pupils  to  do  right. 
His  own  example  is  re-enforced  by  examples  from  the 
lives  of  illustrious  men  and  women. 

2.  Moral  Teaching  is  Fundamental.     Right  ideas 
occasion  right  impulses  and  thus  become  right  acts. 
But  moral  lessons  must  be  concrete,  and  duty  must  be 


128  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

taught  from  life.  Hygienic  laws  are  taught  in  acts. 
The  pupil  ought  to  be  temperate  as  well  as  truthful. 
The  moral  virtues  are  presented  in  stories  and  inci- 
dents. Biography  and  history  are  rich  in  the  best 
lessons.  Eight  ideas  lead  to  right  impulses  and  right 
acts.  The  pupil  must  know  duty  in  order  to  feel 
duty  and  to  do  duty.  Duty  is  taught  incidentally 
in  all  school  work,  but  special  conduct  lessons  are  of 
the  highest  possible  value. 

3.  Duty  is  Positive.    Obedience  to  parents  is  duty. 
Law-abiding  is  duty.     It  is  right  to  tell  the  truth  and 
act  honestly.     We  keep  before  the  pupils  the  moral 
virtues,  and  rarely  refer  to  vices.      As  in  art  ideal 
forms  are  kept  in  view,  so  in  morals ;  the  moral  vir- 
tues are  kept  before  the  pupil.     Pupils  become  so  in- 
terested in  honesty  that  dishonesty  is  not  thought  of. 
They  learn  to  so  love  the  moral  virtues  that  vices  be- 
come hateful.     Doing  right  educates  conscience. 

4.  Training  converts  Example  and  Precept  into 
Habits.     The  teacher  leads  the  pupil  to  do  right  and 
to  keep  on  doing  right.     Thus  moral  habits  are  formed 
and  fixed.     Moral  teaching  and  moral  acts  not  carried 
over  into  moral  habits  are  wasted.     Moral  habits,  as 
a  fact,  are  more  readily  formed  than  evil  habits,  for 
conscience  is  on  the  side  of  right.     Moral  training 
makes  duty  impulses  imperative  in  the  life  of  the  pupil. 

5.  Educative  Punishment  is  a  Moral  Necessity. 
The  aim  of  school  punishment  is  to  lead  the  wayward 
back  to  the  path  of  duty  and  keep  them  in  it.     Pun- 
ishment is  meant  to  impress  the  fact  that  the  way  of 
the  transgressor  is  hard,  and  that  suffering  follows 
lawlessness.     The   disobedient  pupil  learns  through 


EDUCATIVE  PUNISHMENT.  129 

suffering  that  only  the  pure  in  heart,  the  law-abiding, 
are  happy  or  can  be  happy.  Our  loving  Father  so 
planned  the  universe  that  all  violations  of  law  call  for 
punishment.  When  we  violate  physical  laws  we  suf- 
fer and  so  reform.  When  a  child  violates  home  laws 
or  school  laws  it  is  saved  through  suffering.  When 
we  act  dishonestly  we  feel  remorse  and  the  disap- 
proval of  loved  ones,  and  so  suffer  back  to  duty.  God, 
states,  parents,  teachers,  so  plan  that  transgressors 
bring  on  themselves  the  suffering  necessary  to  reforma- 
tion. We  in  love  so  manage  that  the  offender  suffers 
in  order  that  he  may  get  right  and  keep  right. 

6.  Moral  Culture  must  be  persistent. — Persistent 
endeavour  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  pupils  will 
surely  fix  the  habit  of  well  doing.  This  is  the  great- 
est thing  in  education.  The  pupil  learns  to  place  duty 
above  everything  else,  and  comes  to  feel  that  it  is 
indeed  better  to  be  right  than  to  be  president  or  a 
millionaire.* 


CHAPTEK  XIY. 

PUPIL    BETTERMENT    THROUGH    EDUCATIVE     PUNISHMENT. 

Punishment  stands  for  Remedial  Measures. — The 
physician  prescribes  medicines  as  remedies  for  diseases 
caused  by  lawlessness.  The  Great  Physician  prescribes 
spiritual  remedies  for  sin-sick  souls.  The  educator 
prescribes  educative  remedies  for  wayward  pupils.  In 
all  these  cases  repentance  conditions  restoration.  The 

*  Read  Chapter  XXVI  in  connection  with  Chapter  XIII. 
10 


130   SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

patient  comes  to  obey  law,  and  so  gets  well.  The 
sinner  ceases  to  hate  and  learns  to  love,  and  so  is 
saved.  The  wayward  pupil  turns  and  becomes  law- 
abiding,  and  so  is  restored.  This  is  repentance.  Law- 
abiding  is  the  condition  of  health.  Remedial  school 
agencies  are  educative  when  they  induce  a  change  of 
heart  and  a  change  of'  conduct.  The  teacher,  next  to 
the  parent,  is  the  pupil's  truest  friend.  Kindly  he 
leads  his  pupils  to  abandon  hurtful  ways  and  walk  in 
the  paths  of  peace.  He  thinks  of  punishment  as  a 
means  of  helping  pupils  to  cease  doing  wrong  and  be- 
gin doing  right. 

Educative  Suffering  works  Reformation. — We  marvel 
much  when  we  grasp  the  philosophy  of  punishment. 
Through  weakness  we  yield  to  temptation,  but  through 
suffering  we  grow  strong  to  resist  temptation.  We 
so  manage  that  the  offending  pupil  so  suffers  as  to 
quicken  conscience.  Educative  suffering  leads  him 
back  to  duty  and  so  makes  him  strong  to  choose  and 
do  the  right.  There  is  absolutely  no  other  way  to 
work  reformation.  This  is  the  divine  plan.  Educa- 
tive punishments  are  not  pleasant,  but  they  work  the 
peaceful  fruits  of  righteousness. 

PRINCIPLES  RELATING  TO  PUNISHMENT. 

Principles  determining  School  Punishments. — "Why 
do  we  punish  ?  When  should  we  punish  ?  How 
should  we  punish  ?  The  wise  teacher  ponders  long 
over  these  questions.  Even  light  punishments  are  in- 
finite in  their  consequences.  No  wonder  that  the 
angels  pause  here.  No  wonder  that  our  schools,  our 
armies,  and  even  our  penitentiaries  have  abandoned 


EDUCATIVE  PUNISHMENT.  131 

corporal  punishments.  No  wonder  that  dilettanti 
shudder  at  the  thought  of  school  punishment  of  any 
kind.  But  offences  will  come,  and  remedies  must  be 
used.  The  earnest  teacher,  like  the  earnest  physician, 
asks  for  light  and  courage.  What  are  the  teachings 
of  human  nature  and  experience?  Each  teacher  will 
glean  for  himself,  but  as  suggestive,  attention  is  called 
to  some  fundamental  and  guiding  truths.  School  pun- 
ishments, it  must  be  kept  in  mind,  are  always  remedial 
and  self-inflicted.  We  do  not  punish  the  wayward, 
but  we  so  manage  that  they  punish  themselves. 

1.  Punishments    should    be    Educative.      They 
should  tend   to   quicken   conscience   and  strengthen 
will.     Love  casts  out  fear,  and  the  punishment  works 
in  the  offender's  heart  the  resolve  to  cease  wayward- 
ness and  become  law-abiding.    Judicious  punishments 
foster  self-control  and  a  love  of  right.     They  incite 
the  pupil  to  pause  and  change  his  course.     Educative 
punishments  cherish  law-abiding. 

2.  Punishments   should  be  Reformatory.     Will 
this   particular  punishment   help  this  particular  of- 
fender ?     Arthur  swears  during  recess.     I  give  a  les- 
son to  the  school  on  swearing  as  a  bad  habit.     I  re- 
prove Arthur  privately,  and  he  promises  to  try  to 
break  up  the  swearing  habit.     The  right  punishment 
properly   administered    helps    the    pupil   to   reform. 
The  wise  teacher,  like  the  skilful  dentist,  studies  to 
avoid   occasioning  unnecessary  suffering.     Reforma- 
tory punishments  work  repentance. 

3.  The  Punishment  should  be  natural.     It  should 
follow  as  a  natural  consequence  of  the  offence.     God 
has  so  planned  Nature  and  man  that  punishment  every- 


132  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

where  follows  transgression.  Herbert  Spencer  insists 
that  parents  and  teachers  should  carry  out  the  divine 
plan.  As  the  teacher  gains  deeper  insight  into  pupil 
nature,  he  more  and  more  discovers  the  fitness  of 
consequential  punishments.  Pupils  feel  the  justice 
of  such  punishments,  and  they  are  educative  and  re- 
formatory. The  relation  of  the  punishment  to  the 
fault  needs  to  be  profoundly  studied.  James  during 
recess  abuses  the  smaller  boys.  As  a  natural  conse- 
quence he  is  deprived  for  a  time  of  the  privilege  of 
playing  with  the  other  pupils  and  is  sent  out  to  play 
alone.  This  remedy  is  a  natural  consequence  and 
works  repentance.  After  two  or  three  days  James 
requests  restoration  ;  he  is  cured.  But  even  the  most 
capable  teachers  are  sometimes  compelled  to  use  other 
than  consequential  punishments. 

4.  The  Punishment  should  be  Just.  The  degree 
of  severity  should  bear  a  just  relation  to  the  offence. 
The  sense  of  justice  is  very  active  in  pupils,  and  un- 
deserved as  well  as  undue  punishment  is  resented  as 
an  injury.  The  boy  kept  in  for  putting  his  hands  in 
his  pockets  becomes  sullen,  and  is  hurt  and  not  helped. 
In  punishment  it  is  always  safe  to  err  on  the  side  of 
mercy.  Some  one  has  well  said  :  "  We  would  not  ex- 
clude punishment  as  a  means  for  establishing  good 
order,  for  punishment  is  necessary ;  but,  to  be  ade- 
quate, it  must  always  be  just,  and  the  offender  must 
feel  the  justice,  otherwise  its  force  upon  him  is  lost. 
Let  every  pupil  feel  the  reasonableness  and  justice 
of  every  punishment.  Bring  out  every  manly  and 
womanly  attribute,  every  lofty  and  unselfish  am- 
bition." 


EDUCATIVE  PUNISHMENT.  133 

5.  Punishments  should  be  Mild  and  Rare.  The 
skilful  teacher  rarely  punishes,  and  usually  finds  gen- 
tle reproof  or  mild  restraint  all-sufficient.  Sometimes 
deprivations  and  even  suspensions  become  necessary. 
Through  royal  motives  the  pupils  are  led  to  royal 
conduct.  No  one  thinks  of  medicine  except  in  cases 
of  sickness,  and  no  one  thinks  of  punishment  except 
in  case  of  lawlessness.  No  punishment  must  become 
customary. 

HELPFUL  SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS. 

These  are  such  as  tend  to  work  reformation.  Paul 
was  thankful  that  his  erring  brethren  sorrowed  to 
reformation.  The  pupil  has  gone  wrong ;  the  pur- 
pose of  punishment  is  to  lead  him  to  cease  wrong- 
doing and  begin  rightdoing.  Suffering  is  educative 
when  it  works  reform.  Nature  cures,  but  educative 
punishments,  like  suitable  medicines,  help  to  produce 
curative  conditions.  They  work  in  the  pupil's  heart 
a  love  of  law  and  an  aversion  to  lawlessness.  They 
induce  the  determination  to  cease  offending  and  to 
become  law-abiding.  Corporal  punishment  in  most 
cases  hurts  and  does  not  help,  because  it  awakens  hate 
rather  than  love.  All  punishments  which  tend  to  an- 
tagonize must  be  forever  abandoned.  Helpful  school 
punishments  accord  with  the  above  principles  and 
tend  to  pupil  betterment. 

SILENT  DISAPPROVAL. 

Teacher  and  pupils  strongly  approve  law-abiding. 
The  pupil  who  habitually  works  quietly,  attends  regu- 
larly, executes  promptly,  acts  properly,  and  does  right, 


134:  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

is  a  true  hero.  Teacher  and  pupils  thoroughly  disap- 
prove of  lawbreaking.  Every  nerve  and  fibre  of  the 
school  express  disapproval  of  the  noisy,  tardy,  un- 
mannerly, selfish,  cowardly,  lying  pupil.  Kindness 
and  this  thorough  disapproval  tend  to  work  reforma- 
tion. The  wayward  pupil  suffers,  reflects,  reforms. 
In  our  best  schools,  as  in  good  society,  silent  disap- 
proval is  the  great  remedy.  School  sentiment  wisely 
directed  is  a  helpful  punishment. 

REPROOF. 

This  is  the  one  safe,  salutary,  available,  effective 
school  punishment.  Pupil  faults  usually  come  of 
thoughtlessness  rather  than  of  viciousness.  Gentle 
reproof  gives  pause,  and  opens  the  heart  to  all  good 
influences.  Reproof  is  like  medicine :  it  does  not 
cure,  but  it  removes  interferences  and  stimulates  right 
effort,  and  so  assists  Nature.  The  kind  teacher,  as  a 
true  friend,  takes  the  penitent  pupil  by  the  hand  and 
gently  leads  him  into  right  ways.  Reproof  may  be 
general,  or  private,  or  public. 

1.  General  Reproof.  The  offender  is  reached 
through  the  offence.  Mary  has  been  fussy,  and  has  re- 
peatedly disturbed  others  by  whispering.  At  the 
close  of  class  or  school  the  teacher  says  :  "  One  of  you 
has  failed  to  work  quietly,  and  so  has  disturbed  others 
as  well  as  myself.  "We  all  agreed  to  work  quietly, 
and  no  one  can  afford  to  be  a  lawbreaker  and  so  in- 
jure himself  and  others.  I  earnestly  ask  you  to 
think."  A  pupil  so  considerately  dealt  with  does 
think,  and  resolves  to  reform.  Other  pupils  are 
strengthened.  In  my  own  extended  experience  I 


EDUCATIVE  PUNISHMENT.  135 

have  found  silent  disapproval  and  general  reproof  the 
only  punishments  required  in  the  management  of  nine- 
teen pupils  out  of  twenty.  From  its  very  nature 
general  reproof  is  the  most  helpful  of  all  school  pun- 
ishments. There  is  no  limit  to  the  helpful  ways  in 
which  it  may  be  used. 

2.  Private  Reproof.    This  is  the  punishment  com- 
mended by  the  Master  :  "  If  thy  brother  offend  thee, 
go  and  tell  him  alone."     You  have  failed  to  reach 
Andrew.     You  ask  him  to   take  a  walk  with  you. 
Kindly,  as  his  friend,  you  tell  him  of  his  faults.     You 
greatly    desire    to    have   him    do   right.     Will   he? 
Teacher  and  pupil  stand  heart  to  heart.     The  boy's 
heart  is  touched  and  he  is  saved.     Even  with  hard- 
ened offenders  private  reproof  is  marvellously  effect- 
ive.    In  this,  as  in  all  educative  punishments,  love  is 
the    curative    agency.      The    warm-hearted    teacher 
through  kindness  leads  wayward  pupils  back  to  duty. 

3.  Public  Reproof.     The  offence  has  been  public 
and  obtrusive.     Again  and  again  William  has  used 
profane  language  during  recesses.     You  have  failed 
to  reform  him.     You  give  lessons  on  proper  language 
and  on  the  utter  baseness  of  profanity.     You  mention 
William's  bad  habit,  and  request  the  pupils  to  aid  him 
to  overcome  it.     Public  reproof  is  a  powerful  but 
dangerous  punishment,  and  should  be  used  sparingly 
and  with  great  discretion.     Even  when  offences  are 
public,   private   reproof   may   prove    most   effective. 
*'  Reprove  not  a  child  in  the  presence  of  another,"  is 
a  safe  and  sacred  rule.     It  is  a  fearful  thing  to  break 
down  the  pupil's  self-respect  and  blunt  his  regard  for 
public  opinion.     The  sense  of  honour  must  be  cher- 


136  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

islied.     The  pupil  in  all  cases  must  feel  that  all  are 
his  friends,  and  that  he  suffers  for  his  own  good. 

4:.  But  Public  Opinion  has  its  Place.  If  the 
pupil  can  not  be  moved  by  either  general  or  private 
reproof,  a  severer  punishment  becomes  necessary.  At 
a  favourable  moment  the  teacher  presents  the  matter 
to  the  school.  It  has  become  his  painful  duty  to  re- 
prove publicly  one  of  their  number.  He  has  laboured 
earnestly  to  induce  Charles  to  do  right,  but  has  so  far 
failed.  He  mentions  his  name,  not  to  wound  his  feel- 
ings, but  to  arouse  him,  and  to  give  all  the  pupils  an 
opportunity  to  aid  him  to  correct  his  faults.  All 
agree  to  help.  The  offender  feels  that  he  is  in  the 
hands  of  friends  who  mean  to  do  him  good.  He  feels 
ashamed  of  his  conduct,  and  resolves  to  reform.  The 
tremendous  moral  influence  of  the  school  strengthens 
him.  In  the  effort  to  aid  another  each  pupil  is  bene- 
fited. Silently  but  surely  the  work  goes  on.  The 
erring  one  feels,  reflects,  resolves,  yields  to  the  power 
of  public  sentiment  and  the  promptings  of  his  better 
nature. 

PKIVATION. 

Restraint  and  deprivation  supplements  kindness. 
Lawless  pupils  must  learn  to  respect  law.  Abused 
privileges  are  forfeited  and  slighted  opportunities 
are  lost,  but  reformation  must  work  restoration. 

1.  Deprive  of  Recess.  Pupils  greatly  enjoy  the 
common  recess,  and  to  be  deprived  of  it  is  a  severe 
punishment.  Hugh  would  get  into  fights  nearly 
every  recess.  For  two  weeks  the  teacher  sent  him 
out  to  play  alone.  He  promised  reformation  and 
kept  his  promise.  The  sense  of  justice  is  very  strong 


EDUCATIVE  PUNISHMENT.  137 

in  pupils,  and  must  be  respected.  All  feel  entitled  to 
recess,  and  no  one  should  be  deprived  of  it  except  for 
hurtful  conduct  during  recess,  or  for  some  other 
equally  good  reason. 

2.  Deprive  of  the  Privilege  of  going  Home  with 
the  Others.    A  boy  mistreats  younger  pupils,  is  quarrel- 
some, or  uses  bad  language.     He  is  detained  and  sent 
home  by  himself.     Keeping  after  school  is  often  hurt- 
ful and  seldom  justifiable.     In  such  instances  as  the 
above  it  is  clearly  a  natural  punishment. 

3.  Deprive  of  Position.     Irregular  pupils  and  pu- 
pils who  habitually  whisper  forfeit  seats.     Negligent 
and  irregular  pupils  forfeit  their  class  standing  and 
drop  into  lower  and  lower  classes.     A  pupil  who  does 
not  try  is  deprived  of  the  teacher's  approval.     In  a 
word,  privation  of  a  privilege  follows  its  abuse.     The 
pupil  recognises  the  justice  of  the  punishment,  re- 
flects, reforms. 

SUSPENSION. 

Judicious  suspension  induces  consideration  and  so 
tends  to  work  reformation.  A  pupil  without  a  school 
is  like  a  man  without  a  country.  The  pupil  suffers, 
and  his  lonesomeness  is  helpful.  But  the  suspension 
must  be  evidently  just  and  natural.  Insubordination, 
contaminating  influences,  gross  immorality,  general 
worthlessness,  and  chronic  violations  of  the  school 
code'may  justify  suspension.  Even  in  the  absence  of 
specific  law,  the  teacher's  position  gives  him  the  au- 
thority to  suspend.  Still,  this  punishment  should  be 
used  sparingly,  and,  as  a  rule,  only  with  the  older 
pupils.  Children  under  ten  years  of  age  should  rarely 
be  suspended.  Wise  discretion  must  be  exercised. 


138  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

The  teacher  seeks  to  save.  We  give  one  actual  case 
of  suspension. 

James  proved  insubordinate.  The  teacher  kindly 
suspended  him  for  an  indefinite  time.  After  a  week 
he  returned,  made  a  manly  apology,  and  began  a 
course  of  good  conduct. 

Sometimes  suspension  embitters  and  so  injures; 
suspension  must  be  managed  with  great  skill.  As  in 
all  -cases  of  punishment,  there  is  need  of  good  sense 
and  a  good  heart.  Frequent  suspensions  indicate  a 
weak  and  inefficient  teacher.  One  with  large  gov- 
erning power  seldom  needs  to  suspend  a  pupil.  The 
period  of  suspension  may  be  made  specific  or  left  in- 
definite. Experience  shows  that  we  get  the  best  re- 
sults from  brief  suspensions.  "Whenever  a  suspended 
pupil  desires  restoration  and  complies  with  the  condi- 
tions, he  is  to  be  restored  and  welcomed  back.  Expe- 
rience shows  that  where  corporal  punishment  is  not 
used  more  pupils  are  suspended,  but  that  the  good 
effects  are  largely  in  favour  of  suspension. 

EXPULSION. 

Expulsion  severs  the  connection  of  the  pupil  with 
the  school.  Suspension  looks  to  the  good  of  the  pu- 
pil as  well  as  the  good  of  the  school,  but  expulsion 
merely  removes  the  incorrigible.  Therefore 

1.  Expulsion  can  not  lie  classed  as  a  School  Pun- 
ishment. "  After  all  other  means  have  failed,  a  pupil 
may  be  expelled  for  disobedient,  refractory,  or  incor- 
rigible bad  conduct."  Thus  decides  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Illinois.  Expulsion  is  not  reformatory.  It 
may  be  a  school  necessity,  but  it  is  not  a  school  pun- 


EDUCATIVE  PUNISHMENT.  139 

isliment.  "  A  pupil  may  be  expelled  for  gross  im- 
morality or  a  persistent  violation  of  the  school  regu- 
lations." (School  law  of  most  States.)  This  law  is 
sustained  by  the  courts  and  by  public  opinion. 

2.  Expulsion  is  the  Act  of  the  School  Board, 
never  of  the  Teacher.     Principals  of  graded  schools 
and  faculties  of  higher  institutions  are  usually  author- 
ized to  suspend  the  wayward  and  expel  the  incorrigi- 
ble.    The  movement  in  some  cities  to  provide  special 
schools  for  these  incorrigible  pupils  can  not  be  too 
strongly  commended. 

3.  Expulsion  is  an  Expedient  to  relieve  the  Schools 
of  the  Corrupt  and  the  Unworthy.     The  State  quar- 
antines against  epidemics,  and  the  school  quarantines 
against  moral  pestilence.     Rare,  indeed,  are  the  cases 
that  justify  this  terrible  punishment.     Ponder  long 
before  cutting  off  opportunity  and  hope,  even  from 
the  most  unworthy.     Act  as  if  the  unfortunate  one 
were  your  own  brother  or  sister  or  child. 

HURTFUL  SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS. 

Punishments  not  Educative  are  Hurtful. — The  de- 
vices of  the  old  schoolmaster  for  pupil  torture  were 
marvellous.  Corporal  punishment  in  all  its  hideous 
forms — the  dunce  block,  the  gag,  the  dark  closet,  the 
rod,  the  strap,  the  ferule,  the  cat-o'-nine-tails — are  but 
samples.  But  our  civilization  has  outgrown  debasing 
and  cruel  punishments,  and  the  school  "  boss "  with 
his  "  boss  "  methods  has  disappeared.  The  teacher  is 
no  longer  the  master,  but  the  friend.  Suffering  that 
does  not  tend  to  work  reformation  is  now  condemned 


140  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

as  monstrous.     But  punishments  not  educative  still 
linger  in  some  schools,  and  hurt  and  do  not  help. 

CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT. 

1.  Corporal  Punishment  is  not  Educative.     For 
this  reason  it  must  go.     At  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  it  was  universal  and  popular,  but  at 
the  close  of  the  century  it  has  not  only  become  amaz- 
ingly unpopular,  but  it  has  virtually  disappeared  as  a 
school  punishment.     It  is  not  now  used  in  our  col- 
leges nor  in  our  high  schools,  nor  in  the  first  and 
second  grades  of  our  primary  schools,   nor  in   our 
kindergartens.     It  is  rarely  used  in  the  seventh  or 
eighth  grades  of  our  grammar  schools.     In  the  four 
remaining  grades,  as  in  our  rural  schools,  its  use  is 
becoming    rarer    and    rarer.      Some    countries,   like 
France,  and    many   cities,   have    abolished   the   rod. 
Public  sentiment  is  setting  strongly  against  the  use 
of  the  rod,  and  with  the  present  century  corporal 
punishment,  it  is  believed,  will  utterly  disappear  from 
our  schools. 

2.  Transition  Period.     Grant  the  right  but  avoid 
the  use.     For  half  a  century  this  expresses  the  pre- 
vailing attitude  of  educators.     The  author  long  advo- 
cated this  view  as  many  educators  still  do.     But  our 
advancing  civilization  will  not  much  longer  tolerate 
the  use  of  the  rod  in  our  schools.     The  widest  expe- 
rience demonstrates  that  in  our  times  corporal  pun- 
ishment hurts  and  does  not  help.     The  suffering  is 
inflicted,  and  in  most  cases  does  not  even  tend  to  work 
reformation  ;  it  tends  to  alienate  pupil  and  parent. 

3.  Extreme  Cases.     Some  educators  insist  on  the 


EDUCATIVE   PUNISHMENT.  141 

retention  of  the  rod,  to  be  used  in  extreme  cases. 
This  position  is  admirably  presented  by  Dr.  E.  E. 
White  :  "  When  a  child  rebels  against  the  authority 
of  the  parent  or  the  teacher,  the  use  of  the  rod  to 
compel  obedience  may  be  justifiable.  Rebellion  may 
not  only  justify,  but  may  make  necessary,  the  use  of 
corporal  punishments.  When  the  rod  is  used  at  all, 
it  is  for  the  insubordinate  or  the  rebellious.  The  ex- 
istence of  insubordination  or  rebellion  marks  the 
limits  of  natural  penalties  and  makes  a  well-defined 
place  for  force."  Dr.  White's  limitations  substan- 
tially abolish  the  rod.  Good  management  seeks  to 
prevent  rebellion.  When  insubordination  actually 
occurs  it  must  be  overcome  by  wise  treatment.  The 
rod,  like  war,  leaves  all  issues  unsettled.  Patiently, 
rationally,  as  the  wise  physician  treats  the  diseased 
patient,  so  the  judicious  teacher  treats  the  rebellious 
pupil.  In  these  extreme  cases  suspension  is  every 
way  a  better  remedy  than  flogging. 

3.  Gradual  Disuse.  Gradual  abolition  of  the  rod 
is  best.  The  educational  world  is  surely  coming  to 
agree  with  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  : 

"  I  think  that  better  discipline  can  be  obtained  without  the  use 
of  the  rod  than  with  it.  1  should  not  approve  of  even  permitting 
corporal  punishment  in  the  high  school. 

"  A  word  further  in  explanation  of  my  somewhat  conservative 
ground  on  the  subject  of  corporal  punishment.  I  have  known 
the  absolute  and  unconditional  prohibition  of  corporal  punish- 
ment to  produce  evil  effects  at  first.  It  is  better  for  the  teacher 
to  abolish  corporal  punishment  than  for  the  laws  of  the  city  to 
prohibit  it  unconditionally.  There  are  many  pupils  who,  through 
bad  previous  training,  have  come  to  order  their  lives  in  the  fear  of 
punishment.  These  pupils  will  demoralize  a  school  if  the  prac- 
tice of  corporal  punishment  is  prohibited  unconditionally.  But 


142  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

such  pupils  can  be  provided  for  by  suspending  them  from  school 
temporarily,  and  restoring  them  only  on  trial  or  on  probation. 
Such  temporary  suspension  of  ill-behaved  pupils  has  the  most 
salutary  effect." 

4.  The  Extreme  Position.  Corporal  punishment 
is  considered  criminal.  Col.  F.  W.  Parker  for  a  long 
time  has  contended  for  the  immediate  and  absolute 
abolition  of  corporal  punishment.  He  says,  "  I 
would  place  corporal  punishment  and  reward  giving 
as  in  the  highest  degree  criminal."  A  rapidly  increas- 
ing army  of  teachers  are  coming  to  agree  with  Col. 
Parker,  and  were  "  hurtful "  substituted  for  "  crim- 
inal "  in  his  denunciation,  many  more  educators  would 
indorse  his  extreme  position.  Strange  phenomena ! 
Rational  beings  cling  to  things  that  hurt  and  do  not 
help.  The  gambler  clings  to  his  cards,  the  drunk- 
ard to  his  cups,  and  the  old  schoolmaster  to  his  hurt- 
ful practices.  But  reform  and  progress  characterize 
civilization  ;  we  somehow  outgrow  the  antiquated, 
and  the  old  grows  into  the  new. 

FEAR-INSPIRING  PUNISHMENT. 

Dread,  like  a  nightmare,  depresses  pupil  effort. 
Perfect  love  casts  out  fear,  and  peace  comes  to  those 
who  trust.  The  Christian  does  not  fear,  for  Jesus  is 
his  loving  friend.  The  pupil  does  not  fear,  for  he 
loves  and  trusts  his  teacher.  This  is  the  spirit  of  the 
new  education.  But  the  old  schoolmaster  ruled 
through  fear,  and  unfortunately  the  boss  spirit  still  lin- 
gers in  many  of  our  schools,  and  teachers  often  substi- 
tute other  dread-inspiring  devices  for  the  dread  of  the 
rod.  Who  can  estimate  the  torture  occasioned  by  the 


EDUCATIVE  PUNISHMENT.  143 

dread  of  low  grades,  of  demerit  marks,  of  failure  in 
examinations  ?  By  constant  harping  on  these  cruel 
devices  many  teachers  make  school  life  a  burden. 
Fear  paralyzes  effort.  Teacher,  your  dread  of  non- 
election  wastes  much  of  your  own  energies,  and  you 
feel  it  as  a  cruel  torture.  Let  this  teach  you  wisdom. 
First  of  all  study  to  make  your  pupils  happy.  Inter- 
est is  better  than  dread,  and  leading  is  better  than 
bossing. 

DEGRADING  AND  CKUEL  PUNISHMENTS. 

Such  punishments  are  monstrous.  A  self  is  great- 
er than  a  world.  The  self  ideal  must  be  cherished  to 
the  utmost,  and  the  pupil  must  be  led  to  think  highly 
of  himself.  Ridiculing  and  belittling  a  pupil  is  as 
criminal  as  the  old-time  dunce  block  and  dunce  cap. 
Pupil  betterment  is  your  ideal.  You  do  well  to  re- 
ject with  abhorrence  any  punishment  that  tends  to 
lessen  manliness  and  the  sense  of  honour. 

Cruel  punishments  are  simply  barbarous.  Suffer- 
ing in  some  form  may  be  necessary  to  work  reform, 
but  suffering  that  hurts  and  does  not  help  is  cruel. 
Like  the  dentist,  the  teacher  studies  to  avoid  inflicting 
unnecessary  pain.  To  place  red  pepper  on  the  tongue 
as  a  punishment  for  whispering  is  an  outrage.  It  is 
cruel  to  deprive  a  pupil  of  his  recess,  or  to  keep  the 
weary  pupil  for  an  hour  after  school,  or  prolong  an 
examination  for  three  hours,  or  impose  impossible 
tasks. 

UNJUST  PUNISHMENTS. 

Often  innocent  pupils  are  condemned  on  circum- 
stantial evidence.  More  frequently  the  punishment 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

is  unnecessarily  severe.  Pupils  are  exceedingly  sensi- 
tive to  justice,  and  unjust  punishments  generate  bit- 
terness and  resentment.  Be  just,  is  one  of  the  laws 
of  the  school,  and  must  not  be  violated  by  the  teacher. 
It  can  not  help  even  to  mention  the  many  hurtful 
punishments  still  in  current  use.  "  Everything  to 
help  and  nothing  to  hurt  "  is  the  vital  test.  The  ear- 
nest teacher,  like  the  able  physician,  studies  to  find 
the  remedy  that  will  save. 

SUMMARY. 

In  closing  the  subject  of  punishments  it  seems  fitting  to  em- 
phasize a  few  items. 

First,  no  punishment  must  become  customary.  Order  is  the 
rule,  and  conduct  demanding  punishment  is  the  exception.  The 
teacher,  as  best  he  can,  leads  the  erring  pupil  back  to  law-abiding, 
adapting  the  remedy  to  the  case. 

Second,  the  change  from  "  boss  "  rule  to  law  must  be  gradual. 
A  teacher  accustomed  to  govern  by  the  rod  and  by  marking  is 
as  helpless  as  an  infant  when  he  lays  aside  these  barbarisms, 
and  tries  to  control  up  to  self-control.  Bossism  is  better  than 
anarchy. 

Tliird.  the  teacher  must  not  suffer  too  much  anxiety  "because 
the  pupil  goes  wrong.  The  management  must  lead  the  pupil  to 
worry  over  his  faults,  and  so  reform.  Nothing  can  be  worse  for 
the  school  than  for  the  teacher  to  worry,  and  lose  sleep  and  appe- 
tite and  hope.  Each  case  must  be  met  calmly  and  hopefully.  It 
is  the  pupil  who  has  sinned  and  who  must  suffer.  The  teacher 
feels  a  deep  satisfaction  in  restoring  the  wayward  ones. 

Fourth,  corporal  punishment  must  go.  It  must  give  place  to 
rational  control,  for  many  reasons  : 

1.  Corporal  punishment  is  not  educative.     Few  teachers  suc- 
ceed in  making  it  work  reformation.     From  its  nature  it  gener- 
ates bitterness  and  fear.     It  is  a  low  incentive  and  does  not  tend 
to  ennoble.     As  a  rule,  it  hurts  and  does  not  help. 

2.  Better  discipline  is  secured  without  the  use  of  the  rod.     So 
testify  the  world's  educators.     The  appeal  to  high  incentives 


<p*iis*5> 

UNIVERSITY 
EDUCATIVE    PAujg|^^H\^X       U5 

tends  to  easy  control.     The  rule  of  the  rod  is  beset  with  difficul- 
ties, and  is  never  satisfactory. 

3.  Public  sentiment  condemns   the  use   of   the  rod    in   our 
schools.     Corporal  punishment  has  been  abolished  in  the  army, 
the  navy,  and  the  penitentiary.     Enlightened  public  opinion  de- 
mands its  discontinuance  in  our  schools.     Corporal  punishment 
breeds  trouble  even  when  parents  consent. 

4.  Corporal  punishment  hurts  teacher  and  pupil.     It  unfits  the 
teacher  for  understanding  the  pupil  and  for  governing  through 
ennobling  motives.     It  unavoidably  weakens  his  influence.     One 
teacher  in  a  hundred  may  use  the  rod  without  injuring  the  pupil, 
but  to  the  ninety  and  nine  it  is  a  dangerous  experiment. 

5.  Worst  of  all,  the  use  of  the  rod  militates  against  the  study 
and  use  of   educative  motives.    Teachers  can  make  the  pupils 
obey,  and  so  are  content.     They  will  discuss  corporal  punish- 
ment, but  will  not  discuss  altruistic  and  duty  motives. 


EDUCATIVE  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT. 

SUGGESTIVE   STUDY   HINTS   AND   TOPICS    FOR   DISCUSSION. 

X.  Educative  Governing  Power. — What  is  meant  by  govern- 
ment? by  school  government1?  by  governing  power?     What  are 
the  ends  in  school  government?  the  agencies?  the  devices?    Why 
should  the  teacher  be  qualified  ?  authorized  ?  sustained  ?    Is  the 
teacher  born,  or  made  ?    Is  governing  power  a  natural  gift  ?    May 
it  be  developed?    What  do  you  mean  by  elements  of  governing 
power?    Why  should  you  be  what  you  wish  your  pupils  to  be- 
come?   Discuss,  as  elements  of  governing  power,  Character  ;  Cul- 
ture ;  Pupil  Jnsight ;  Teaching  Power  ;  Heart  Power  ;  Will  Power ; 
System;  Tact;  Bearing.     Is  teacher  governing   power  the  true 
basis  of  educative  school  government  ? 

XI.  Educative  Incentives. — Explain  the  function  of  motives  in 
the  soul  economy.     Why  must  you  lead  pupils  through  motives  ? 
Show  that  the  motive  is  the  explanation  of  the  act.     Describe  the 
three  classes  of  pupils.     How  will  you  treat  each?    Prove  that 
a  teacher  is  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  his  pupils.     Do  you  de- 
termine the  motives  of  your  pupils?    How?    Why  is  teaching 
the  most  responsible  of  all  professions  ?     What  do  you  mean  by 
educative  motives?  by  debasing  motives?    Why  should  school 

11 


SCHOOL  MAN.UiMMKNT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

motives  be  helpful  ?  Why  should  you  root  out  hurtful  incentives  t 
What  do  you  mean  by  hurtful  motives  I  Show  the  effects  of 
yielding  to  the  appetites ;  to  the  passions ;  to  selfishness.  What  do 
you  mean  by  low  motives!  Why  do  you  not  use  the  rod  ?  per-cent 
mark-  i  rewards  I  prizes?  What  do  you  mean  by  high  motives?  by 
the  highest  motives?  Describe  the  royal  egoistic  motives;  the 
highest  motives.  Through  what  motives  do  you  lead  your  pupils? 
Why  do  you  rely  most  on  the  sense  of  duty  ?  How  do  you  develop 
the  duty  habit  ?  Describe  the  battles  of  the  motives. 

XII.  Educative  Regulations. — Is  your  school  an  embryo  repub- 
lic?   Do  you  govern  up  to  self-government?    Compare  the  boss, 
the  goody-goody  teacher,  and  the  true  teacher.     Why  should 
school  regulations  be  educative  ?  positive ?  general  ?  practical  ?  popu- 
lar ?    Explain  the  law  of  quietude  ;  of  regularity ;  of  promptitude ; 
of  propriety;  of  duty.     Describe   your  method  in  enacting  the 
school  code.     Give  some  of  the  advantages  of  getting  the  pupils 
to  help  make  the  laws.     Why  do  you  have  the  code  approved  by 
the  school  board? 

XIII.  Educative  Law-abiding. — Will  the  plan  of  securing  good 
conduct  through  self-imposed  laws  mark  an  educational  epoch  ? 
Show  that  order  is  cheerful  law-abiding.     Compare  the  boss  en- 
forcing his  rules  and  the  true  teacher  leading  his  pupils  up  to 
self-government.     Give  your  method  in  educating  your  pupils  to 
work  quietly ;  to  be  regular ;  to  be  prompt ;  to  act  properly ;  to  do 
right.     Why  do  you  look  well  to  securing  the  most  helpful  con- 
ditions ?    Show  the  influence  of  example ;  of  precept ;  of  training. 
Why  do  you  count  moral  culture  the  educational  superlative  ? 

XI V.  Educative    Punishments. — Show    that    punishment  is  a 
moral  necessity ;  that  it  is  a  remedial  agency ;  that  it  works  refor- 
mation.   State  the  philosophy  of  punishment.    Why  should  school 
punishments   be  educative?  reformatory?  consequential?  just? 
mild?  rare?  What  is  meant  by  helpful  school  punishments?  What 
cures?    Show  how  wayward  pupils  are  helped  by  silent  disap- 
proval ;  by  general  reproof ;  by  private  reproof ;  by  public  reproof ; 
by  deprivations ;  by  suspension.     What  can  you  say  about  expul- 
sion?   What  do  you  mean  by  hurtful  school  punishments?     WThy 
do  you  oppose  corporal  punishment?  fear- in  spiring  punishments? 
degrading  punishments?  cruel  punishments?  unjust  punishments? 
State  the  four  items  in  the  summary;  discuss  the  five  reasons  for 
discontinuing  the  use  of  the  rod. 


PART   IV. 

PUPIL   IMPROVEMENT    THROUGH 

EDUCATIVE   CLASS   MANAGEMENT  AND 

CLASS   WORK. 


CHAPTER  XV.— PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  SKILFUL  CLASS 

ORGANIZATION  AND  CONTROL. 
XVI. — PUPIL     IMPROVEMENT    THROUGH     EDUCATIVE 

CLASS  METHODS  AND  DEVICES. 
XVII. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  HELPFUL  SCHOOL 

AND  CLASS  TACTICS. 
XVIII. — PUPIL   IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH   BLENDING  OF 

ORAL  AND  BOOK  CLASS  WORK. 
XIX. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  GOOD  TEACHING 
IN  LIEU  OF  EXTRANEOUS  INCENTIVES. 
147 


r    xv. 

THE  CLASS 

AND 

CLASSIFI- 
CATION. 


XVI. 
EDUCA- 
TIVE 

Tl.ASS 

WORK. 


XVII. 

CLASS 

TACTICS. 


XVIII. 

ORAL  AND 

BOOK 

WORK. 


I.  School evo-  (  1.  Individualism, 
lutiou.       '( 2.  Classification. 


XIX. 

GOOD 

TEACHING. 


II.  The  class . 


in.  Class  hygiene. 

IV.  Happy  class  control. 

V.  Scheme  for  classification. 


1.  True  class. 

2.  Fitness  the  test. 

3.  Adapted  work. 

4.  Size  of  clans. 

5.  The  heart,  school  life. 

6.  Advantages. 


1.  Unitize  the  schools. 

2.  Rural  schools. 

3.  Graded  schools. 

4.  High  schools. 
( Criteria. 

VI.  Classifying.  •<  Tentative. 

( Promotion  and  demotion. 

I.  The  recitation— Class  work. 

( 1.  Spontaneity.    2.  Concealing. 

II.  Characteristics  of -<  3.  Review.    4.  Lesson  plan. 

(  5.  Drill.    6.  Prereview. 

(1.  Unity.  fl.  Teachingquestion. 

2.  Individual.     2.  Conversation. 
3.1nvestiga-    \  3.  Topic, 
tion  method.     4.  Discussion. 

[5.  Lecture. 

1.  The  class.  2.  Written  work.  3.  Lab- 
oratory work.  4.  Diagrams.  5. 
Reporting.  6.  Teaching.  7.  Con- 
cert work.  8.  Original  devices. 

I.  School  and  class  tactics.    Objects. 

II.  Principles— fitness,  uniformity,  economy. 

III.  Electric  clock  ;  signals  ;  movements. 

IV.  Calling  and  dismissing  school. 

V.  Calling  and  dismissing  classes. 

VI.  Fitness  in  class  tactics. 

VII.  Fitness  in  board  tactics. 

VIII.  Fitness  in  concert  tactics. 

IX.  Gains  by  sensible  tactics. 

I.  The  old  education ;  the  new  education. 

II.  Proportion  of  oral  and  book  work  in  -,  „ 

fl.  Conduct. 

III.  Oralttnd  book    1;^^- 

work  in—        ,  4  Mathematics. 
[5.  Art. 
fl.  Objects. 


IV.  Class  devices. 


IV.  Oral  teaching. 

[4.  Example. 
"1.  Assigning  lesson. 

V.  Book  teaching.  \  §;  gS?s£dy. 

4.  Book— class  work. 

1.  Educative. 


I.  Written  recitations,  in  lieu  of  test 

examinations. 

II.  Good  teaching  in  lieu  of  mark- 

ing. 


in.  Educative  records  and  reports. 

1 4.  Reports. 
1.  Follows  satisfactory  work. 


IV.  Promotion  and 
graduation. 


2.  Occasional. 

3.  Helpful. 

4.  All-sufficient. 

1.  High  incentive. 

2.  Effective. 

3.  Sufficient. 

4.  Economic. 
1.  Attendance. 


148 


2.  Elementary  certificate 

3.  High-school  diploma. 

4.  College  diploma. 

5.  No  marking;  no  test  examinations. 


PART   FOURTH. 

PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EDUCATIVE 
CLASS  MANAGEMENT. 


'   CHAPTER  XV. 

THE   CLASS,    AND   CLASS   CONTROL. 

School  Evolution. — Popular  education  is  modern. 
True,  some  beginnings  had  been  made  in  other  times, 
but  at  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  na- 
tions had  not  yet  entered  upon  the  work  of  educating 
the  masses.  Those  of  us  who  have  lived  in  the  schools 
for  four  or  five  decades  have  been  a  part  of  our  school 
evolution  from  its  crude  beginnings  up  to  its  highest 
stage  of  development.  As  pupils  we  began  with  the 
stage  of  individualism  and  advanced  to  the  stage  of 
classification  ;  and  as  teachers  we  began  with  the  stage 
of  gradation  and  are  advancing  in  the  stages  of  spe- 
cialization and  department  teaching. 

1.  Individualism.  This  was  the  first  stage  in 
school  evolution.  The  people  created  the  schools. 
The  young  were  grouped  and  placed  under  masters. 
Each  group  of  pupils  with  its  master  was  a  school. 

149 


150  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

The  master  was  boss  and  was  infallible.  Each  pupil 
was  given  his  task  and  was  called  up  to  say  his  lesson. 
That  was  all.  For  one  or  two  years  the  child  puzzled 
over  the  alphabet  and  said  his  A  B  C's.  For  two  or 
three  more  years  the  child  puzzled  over  the  mysteries 
of  the  spelling  book  and  said  his  spelling  lessons. 
This  was  all ;  no  reading,  no  object  lesson  but  the 
ferule,  no  music  but  the  rod.  The  older  pupils  were 
given  tasks  in  reading,  in  writing,  and  in  ciphering, 
and  were  sometimes  called  up  one  by  one  to  say  their 
lessons.  Individualism  was  the  characteristic  of  the 
earliest  stage  of  school  evolution. 

2.  Classification.  This  was  the  second  stage  in 
our  elementary  school  evolution.  Some  daring  teacher 
ventured  to  group  his  pupils  into  classes ;  he  was 
speedily  dismissed.  The  teachers  and  the  pupils  bit- 
terly opposed  the  innovation.  It  was  well  enough  in 
college,  but  it  would  never  do  in  common  schools. 
But  the  young  men  who  had  been  to  college  favoured 
classification.  They  showed  that  classification  enabled 
the  teacher  to  do  tenfold  more  work.  Slowly  classifi- 
cation worked  its  way  into  all  our  schools  and  indi- 
vidualism disappeared.  Occasionally  we  still  hear 
some  belated  teacher  cry,  "  Back  to  individualism  ! " 
But,  from  the  nature  of  true  evolution,  all  that  is 
good  in  the  old  reappears  in  the  new.  Individualism 
as  a  phase  of  school  work  has  disappeared  forever, 
but  the  helpful  treatment  of  the  individual  pupil  per- 
meates all  approved  school  work.  Classification  is 
the  characteristic  of  the  second  stage  of  school  evo- 
lution. 


THE  CLASS,  AND  CLASS  CONTROL.  151 

THE  CM.SS. 

In  the  school  sense,  a  class  is  a  group  of  pupils 
who  can  work  together.  In  our  ideal  class  the  pupils 
are  of  equal  attainments  and  of  equal  ability.  At  the 
best,  we  must  be  content  to  approximate  our  ideal, 
and  in  classifying  we  must  substitute  similar  for  equal ; 
the  one  safe  test  is,  ability  to  work  together.  Can  the 
pupil  do  with  greatest  profit  the  work  of  the  class  ? 

1.  Pupils  are  grouped  to  facilitate  Work.    Ability 
to  do  the  work  is  the  test.     A  true  class  is  a  group  of 
pupils  prepared  to  work  together.     The  pupils  in  a 
class  may  differ  in  attainments,  in  ability,  in  age,  but 
they  must  be  able  to  work  together.     Pupils  who  can 
do  well  more  advanced  work  are  promoted,  and  pupils 
who  can  not  do  profitably  the  work  of  the  class  are 
dropped  to  a  lower  class.     We  think  of  a  class  as  a 
company  of  fellow- workers  interested  in  the  same  sub- 
jects and  capable  of  moving  forward  together.     To 
place  or  keep  a  pupil  in  a  class  too  high  or  too  low 
for  him  is  weakness  and  not  kindness. 

2.  The  Work  of  the  Class  is  adapted  to  the  Pupils. 
We  place  in  a  class  the  pupils  best  prepared  to  work 
together;  still   we  find   we   have   in  the  class  three 
grades — bright,  average,  and  slow  pupils.     We  plan 
the  work  of  the  class  with  reference  to  the  average 
pupils,  usually  two  thirds  of  the  class.     We  give  the 
bright  pupils,  one  sixth  of  the  class,  additional  work, 
and  promote  them  as  it  is  found  best.     The  slow  pu- 
pils, about  one  sixth  of  the  class,  interest  us.    Though 
dull,  they  often  have  good  stuff  in  them.     We  study 
each  one.     We  spare  no  effort  to  interest  and  stim- 


152  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

nlate  these  pupils.  "We  give  them  the  minimum 
amount  of  work  to  do.  Most  of  them  are  led  to  do 
reasonably  good  work.  When  it  becomes  evident 
that  one  of  these  can  not  profitably  work  with  the 
class,  he  is  dropped  to  a  lower  one. 

3.  Medium  sized  Classes  are  most  desirable.    From 
ten  to  thirty  pupils  constitute  a  satisfactory  working 
class.     "When  a  class  in  our  elementary  or  high  schools 
exceeds    thirty,   it  should,   if    possible,   be   divided. 
Classes  of  less   than  ten  pupils  may  safely  be  com- 
bined.    We  find  it  true  educational  economy  to  keep 
our  classes  within  efficient  working  limits.     In  some 
subjects  much  is  gained  by  combined  recitations ;  in 
other  studies  we  can  accomplish  most  by  dividing  a 
class  into  sections.     In  all  cases  individual  teaching 
characterizes  good   class   work.      The   teacher   must 
study  to  keep  in  vital  touch  with  each  pupil. 

4.  The  Class  is  the  Heart  of  School  Life.     In  it 
and  through  it  flow  the  warm  currents  of  educative 
life.     Here  teacher  and  pupil  are  at  their  best.     The 
united  effort  to  master  the  subject  creates  enthusiasm 
and  develops  power.     Each  pupil  does  his  best.    Like 
the  skilful  general  in  the  battle,  the  teacher  encour- 
ages and  manages;  but  the  pupils,  like  the  soldiers, 
do  the  work.     In  the  class  the  pupils  learn  how  to 
study,  how  to  find  out  from  Nature,  how  to  find  out 
from  books,  and  how  to  express. 

5.  Classification  is  vastly  better  than  Individual- 
ism.    The  greatest  thing  the  race  has  done  or  can  do 
is  the  creation  of  schools  for  all.     Even  in  the  stage 
of  individualism  the  school  was  invaluable,  for  some- 
how pupils   learned    to  read  and  write  and  cipher. 


THE  CLASS,  AND  CLASS  CONTROL.  153 

But  classification  was  an  immense  improvement.  It 
carried  over  into  the  elementary  schools  what  had 
proved  so  helpful  in  the  higher  education.  The  class 
multiplies  the  teacher  by  ten  or  even  by  twenty.  The 
teacher  with  the  class  works  with  power  impossible 
with  one  pupil.  The  pupils  gain  most  by  the  class. 
Investigating  together  utilizes  the  potent  agencies — 
interest,  sympathy,  generosity,  generous  emulation. 


HYGIENIC  CONDITIONS  OF  EDUCATIVE  CLASS  WORK. 

The  successful  teacher  looks  well  to  the  hygienic 
conditions  of  educative  class  work.  (1)  Pupils  must 
form  good  hygienic  habits.  Perfect  health  is  the  basis 
of  achievement.  (2)  Pupils  must  breathe  pure  air  of 
the  proper  temperature.  Vitiated  air  and  abnormal 
temperature  remarkably  reduce  the  efficiency  of  class 
work.  (3)  Pupils  must  work  in  the  light.  Cheer- 
ful, well-lighted  schoolrooms  are  astonishingly  help- 
ful. (4)  Pupils  must  change  positions  frequently. 
Now  they  stand  and  now  they  sit ;  now  they  work  at 
the  board  and  now  they  do  seat  work.  Young  per- 
sons soon  grow  restless,  and  movement  is  a  school 
necessity.  (5)  Pupils  must  be  made  happy.  There 
is  interest  and  delight,  and  all  are  glad  when  the  time 
comes  for  class  work.  Fear  and  grades  and  mere  me- 
chanical work  are  not  thought  of.  (6)  Teacher  and 
pupils  must  be  kept  fresh  by  the  hourly  recess ;  no 
other  hygienic  device  is  of  equal  value  in  school 
work.  Good  hygienic  conditions  multiply  the  work- 
ing power  of  teacher  and  pupil  and  render  control 
comparatively  easy.  The  stupid  teacher  drudges  on 


154:  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

and  does  not  stop  to  think  of  the  hygienic  conditions 
of  success. 

HAPPY  CLASS  CONTROL. 

Educative  control  conditions  the  best  teaching. 
Attention  through  interest  is  fundamental.  Intelli- 
gent and  vigorous  teaching  is  the  secret  of  easy  con- 
trol. Not  a  moment  is  wasted.  Each  pupil  is  en- 
listed in  the  lesson,  and  is  led  to  do  his  best.  Rules 
are  not  needed.  All  look  to  the  teacher  as  their 
leader.  Desire  to  ask  or  answer  a  question  is  indi- 
cated by  raising  the  hand.  No  one  thinks  of  com- 
municating except  through  the  teacher.  There  is  no 
excuse  for  disorder,  nor  is  there  time  to  reprove  dis- 
order during  the  recitation.  A  disorderly  pupil  is 
quietly  but  promptly  excused  from  the  class,  and  the 
work  is  not  interrupted.  Later,  the  unfortunate  dis- 
turber is  kindly  disciplined.  Each  pupil  grows  into 
the  habit  of  good  conduct  and  vigorous  work.  It  is 
a  great  thing  to  secure  the  earnest  effort  of  each 
member  of  the  class  to  master  the  lesson  and  also 
help  others  to  master  it.  Quiet  is  essential,  but 
mere  silence  is  not  good  order ;  earnest  work  char- 
acterizes good  class  control.  The  art  of  happy  class 
control  tests  to  the  utmost  the  skill  even  of  the  most 
gifted  teacher.  Few  preachers  can  hold  the  attention 
of  an  audience  for  half  an  hour  ;  it  is  vastly  more 
difficult  to  hold  the  interested  working  attention  of  a 
class  of  restless  pupils ;  to  do  this  the  teacher  must  be 
intensely  in  earnest  and  must  understand  his  pupils, 
his  subject,  and  his  art.  Control  is  easy  and  happy 
when  pupils  are  kept  interested  and  busy. 


THE  CLASS,  AND   CLASS  CONTROL.  155 

SCHEME  FOR  CLASSIFYING  SCHOOLS. 

The  problems  relating  to  the  class  are  of  profound 
interest.  Here,  as  everywhere,  we  must  build  on  the 
experience  of  the  race;  but  with  all  the  lights  of  the 
past  and  all  the  helps  of  the  present,  each  one,  from 
necessity,  must  work  out  these  problems  anew.  The 
teacher  is  an  artist,  not  merely  an  artisan.  The  aim 
in  these  chapters  is  to  develop  principles  rather  than 
rules,  and  to  suggest  better  ideals  rather  than  to  teach 
specific  methods.  Our  faith  in  the  earnest  teacher  is 
simply  boundless. 

School  classification  has  been  satisfactorily  worked 
out  in  our  times.  With  no  other  phase  of  our  school 
work  are  we  so  well  pleased.  The  scheme  so  ably 
worked  out  seems  worthy  of  universal  acceptation. 
The  aim  is  to  unify  the  educational  work  from  the 
kindergarten  to  the  university. 

1.  The  Rural  School.  The  typical  rural  school  is 
ungraded.  There  is  one  teacher,  and  the  pupils  are 
of  all  elementary  stages  of  advancement.  The  work 
includes  that  of  our  primary  and  intermediate  graded 
schools.  The  scheme  of  classification  wisely  harmo- 
nizes the  work  of  ungraded  and  graded  schools.  The 
elementary  period  is  eight  years — 'from  the  sixth  to 
the  fourteenth  year  of  pupil  life.  No  attempt  to 
shorten  the  time  is  likely  to  prove  satisfactory.  The 
pupils  in  the  rural  schools  are  grouped  into  four 
classes,  each  class  doing  two  years'  work.  Class  D  in- 
cludes the  pupils  from  six  to  eight ;  class  C,  the  pupils 
from  eight  to  ten ;  class  B,  the  pupils  from  ten  to 
twelve ;  class  A,  the  pupils  from  twelve  to  fourteen. 


150  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

In  the  real  school  the  ages  vary,  but  these  are  work- 
ing averages.  Each  class  includes  two  grades.  (See 
Eural  Schools,  Chapter  XXL) 

2.  The  Graded  School.     The  pupils  are  arranged 
according  to  advancement  into  eight  groups  called 
grades.     In  the  typical,  graded  school  there  is  a  teach- 
er for  each  grade.     The  pupils  in  a  grade  do  a  year's 
work,  so  the  grades  and  the  years  correspond  ;  thus 
Grade  I  includes  the  pupils  doing   the  first  year's 
work,  and  Grade  VIII  includes  the  pupils  doing  the 
work  of  the  eighth  year.     Each  grade  includes  two 
classes,  the  beginners  in  the  grade  (class  b)  and  the 
advanced  pupils  (class  a).     Here  and  everywhere  a 
class  means  a  group  of  pupils  who  work  together. 
(See  Graded  Schools,  Chapter  XXIII.) 

3.  The  High  School.    The  course  extends  through 
four  years,  and   the   pupils   are   grouped   into  four 
divisions  corresponding  with  the  years  and  designated 
by  the  letters  D,  C,  B,  and  A.     These  groups  are 
arranged  in  classes  of  twenty  pupils,  more  or  less,  and 
designated  as  class  D1,  class  D2,  class  D3,  etc. ;  class 
C1,  class  C2,  class  C8,  etc. ;  class  B1,  class  B2 ;  class  A. 
The  scheme  is  so  practical  that  it  tends  to  become 
general.     (See  High  Schools,  Chapter  XXV.) 

4.  Educators  plan  Simplicity,  Uniformity,  Unity. 
Our  schools  are  the  schools  of  the  people,  and  hence 
demand  that  the  scheme  of   classification  be  simple 
and  the  nomenclature  easy.     "We  so  plan  that  our  un- 
graded schools  may  be  readily  transformed  into  graded 
schools.     "We   so   plan   that   pupils   may,   without   a 
break  in  their  work,  pass  from  an  ungraded  to  graded 
schools,  or  from  one  graded  school  to  any  other  graded 


THE  CLASS,  AND  CLASS  CONTROL.     157 

school.  We  so  plan  that  the  pupil,  without  a  break, 
may  pass  up  from  class  to  class  from  the  kindergarten 
to  the  university. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  PUPILS. 

This  problem  is  ever  with  us.  Of  all  organic 
school  work,  this  is  the  most  difficult  and  the  most 
important.  Mistakes  here  mar  lives.  We  find  it  easy 
to  master  the  scheme  for  classification,  but  we  never 
find  it  easy  to  classify  our  pupils.  Classification  is 
strictly  professional  work. 

1.  Criteria.     We  study  each  pupil  as  the  physician 
studies  each  patient.     Heredity,  temperament,  phys- 
ical abilities,  mental  abilities,  moral  habits,  and  attain- 
ments in  the  leading  studies  are  carefully  considered. 
The  vital  question  is,  Can  this  pupil  work  most  profit- 
ably with  this  class  f     In  view  of  all  the  conditions 
we  decide.     Like  all  artists,  we  find  our  work  ex- 
tremely perplexing  at  first ;  but  as  the  years  go  by  we 
gain  intuitive  insight  and  acquire  skill. 

2.  Tentative.     After  all,  class  work  is  the  ulti- 
mate test.     It  is  important  to  place  the  new  pupil 
in  the  right  class  at  first,  but  it  is  always  the  safe 
course   to  try   him  before  deciding.     Our  tentative 
classifications  must  necessarily  be  more  or  less  hasty  ; 
but  when  we  observe  the  pupil  at  his  work,  we  de- 
liberately determine  his  place.     From  day  to  day  we 
promote  and  demote  pupils  as  we  find  best,  and  so 
reach,  in  some  degree,  permanent  classification. 

3.  Promote  and  Transfer.    The  teacher's  work  is 
never  done.     Classification  goes  on  forever.     A  true 
class  is  a  group  of  pupils  who  can  profitably  work 


158  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

together.  Whenever  we  become  satisfied  that  a  pupil 
can  work  more  profitably  with  a  higher  class,  we  pro- 
mote him  ;  or  we  transfer  him,  when  we  find  he  can 
do  better,  to  a  lower  class.  We  make  these  changes 
as  quietly  as  Nature  works.  Before  the  time  comes 
for  class  promotion  we  shall  have  made  all  desirable 
changes,  and  the  class  as  a  class  will  become  a  higher 
class.  This  is  ideal,  but  it  should  be  made  a  reality 
by  every  progressive  teacher. 


CHAPTEE  XYL 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    EDUCATIVE    CLASS 
METHODS    AND    DEVICES. 

WE  build  on  the  achievements  of  the  race.  We 
study  to  make  our  class  work  exceedingly  fruitful. 
We  learn  valuable  lessons  in  class  work  from  Jes-us, 
from  Plato,  from  Pythagoras,  from  the  Rabbi,  from 
the  Jesuit,  from  gifted  teachers  of  all  ages  and  lands. 
We  enrich  our  own  experience  in  class  work  by  all 
experience.  In  all  the  light,  as  best  we  can,  we  plan 
and  do  our  class  work. 

The  Recitation. — This  expression  is  a  heritage  from 
the  old  schoolmaster.  To  him,  class  work  was  liter- 
ally reciting ;  the  pupil  committed  the  words  of  the 
book  and  recited  the  lesson.  The  new  education  re- 
tains the  expression  but  gives  to  it  a  new  meaning. 
In  general,  we  use  class  work  and  the  recitation  as 
synonymous  expressions ;  but  specifically,  the  recita- 


EDUCATIVE  CLASS  METHODS  AND   DEVICES.  159 

tion  includes  class  work  conducted  by  the  teacher. 
The  teacher  directs  laboratory  work  and  the  studies 
of  the  several  pupils,  but  this  is  individual  rather 
than  class  work.  We  speak  of  the  recitation  period, 
the  recitation  plan,  the  next  recitation,  the  previous 
recitation,  for  we  find  these  expressions  most  con- 
venient. 

Class  Work. — Whatever  the  class  does  as  an  organ- 
ism is  termed  class  work.  In  its  elements  the  class  is 
composed  of  the  teacher  and  the  pupils.  For  work- 
ing purposes  the  pupils  are  grouped  into  sections, 
number  one  in  each  group  being  section  leader.  Roll 
call  is  instantaneous  as  the  section  leaders  report  ab- 
sentees. Like  a  well-organized  army  the  class  is  al- 
ways ready  for  action.  The  teacher  is  the  class  leader. 
What  do  you  consider  good  class  work  ?  What  are 
the  characteristics  of  the  efficient  recitation  ?  What 
do  you  understand  by  good  class  methods  ?  What  do 
you  mean  by  helpful  class  devices  ? 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  EFFICIENT  CLASS  WORK. 

We  study  the  class  work  of  many  successful  teach- 
ers, and  gain  insight  into  the  nature  of  the  well  con- 
ducted recitation.  Some  characteristics  of  fruitful 
teaching  impress  us. 

1.  Spontaneity.  Teacher  and  pupils  study  as  best 
they  can  the  lesson  topic.  The  teacher  plans  the  reci- 
tation as  carefully  as  the  general  plans  the  battle.  Still 
the  ideal  recitation  is  a  marvel  of  spontaneity.  Teacher 
and  pupils  enter  into  the  investigation  with  the  fresh- 
ness and  zest  of  original  explorers  and  real  artists. 
Investigation  and  creation  supplement  each  other. 


160  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

The  recitation,  like  the  poem,  is  an  original  creation. 
It  is  this  spontaneity  that  sustains  unflagging  inter- 
est and  inspires  teacher  and  pupils  to  surpass  them- 
selves. Arnold  spent  hours  preparing  a  Latin  exer- 
cise that  he  had  taught  annually  for  thirty  years,  but 
he  taught  the  lesson  as  if  it  was  for  the  first  time. 
The  real  teacher,  like  the  orator,  is  always  fresh  and 
inspiring.  Spontaneity  characterizes  good  class  work 
as  drudgery  characterizes  machine  work.  Constant 
surprises  keep  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  alert  and 
happy. 

2.  Revealing  and  Concealing.     God  reveals  a  lit- 
tle and  leaves  man  to  find  out  the  rest.     Jesus  taught 
a  few  truths  and  wisely  left  us  hungering  and  thirst- 
ing for  more.     The  great  preacher  unfolds  one  or 
two  truths,  but  awakens  a  burning  desire  to  know  all 
truth.     The  discreet  teacher  conceals  from  view  the 
boundless  continent,  that  he  may  lead  his  pupils  to  ex- 
plore the  small  island.     It  is  a  great  art  to  open  truth 
to  the  learner  little  by  little.     The  novice  tells  all  he 
knows,  but  the  wise  teacher  conceals  all  but  the  one 
thing  needful.     Agassiz  so  taught  one  thing  as  to  in- 
spire his  pupils  to  find  out  many  things.     Revealing 
is  well,  but  concealing  is  better.     We  learn  a  great 
lesson  from  the  microscope ;  the  teacher  conceals  that 
he  may  the  better  reveal.     Concealing  the  boundless 
fields  of  knowledge  and  revealing  truth  little  by  little 
characterizes  good  class  work.     "  The  art  of  teaching 
a  little,"  said  Huxley,  "  depends  on  knowing  a  great 
deal,  and  that  thoroughly." 

3.  Review  and  Recapitulation.     Isolated  ideas  are 
worthless,  but  related  truths  are  golden.     At  each  step 


EDUCATIVE  CLASS  METHODS  AND  DEVICES.  161 

the  learner  is  led  to  apperceive  as  well  as  perceive. 
The  present  lesson  builds  on  previous  lessons.  Be- 
fore beginning  the  new  lesson  the  pupils  recall  in 
brief  the  results  heretofore  reached,  and  the  new  les- 
son is  worked  out  in  view  of  past  lessons.  Then,  at 
the  close  of  the  recitation,  the  points  made  in  the  les- 
son are  recapitulated,  that  they  may  be  firmly  grasped 
and  readily  reproduced.  Like  the  oration,  the  recita- 
tion has  its  exordium  and  its  peroration.  Like  the 
essay,  the  recitation  has  its  introduction  and  its  sum- 
mary. The  review  and  the  recapitulation  characterize 
good  class  work. 

4.  Lesson  Plan.  As  the  general  plans  the  battle, 
so  the  true  teacher  plans  the  recitation.  The  aim 
is  mastery  through  concentrated  and  well-directed 
effort.  All  educative  work  is  systematic  work.  The 
main  points  are  isolated,  mastered  in  detail,  recom- 
bined.  By  examples  and  illustrations  and  compari- 
sons and  applications  the  pupils  are  led  to  fully  grasp 
the  points.  Other  studies  are  made  contributory,  but 
nothing,  even  for  a  moment,  is  permitted  to  divert 
attention  from  the  lesson.  The  questions  and  stories 
and  discussions  and  allusions,  from  start  to  finish,  are 
made  to  contribute  to  the  mastery  of  the  lesson.  As 
defeat  awaits  the  commander  who  fights  without  a 
battle  plan,  so  failure  awaits  the  teacher  who  meets 
his  class  without  a  lesson  plan.  Only  one  teacher  in 
twenty  wisely  plans  the 'lessons,  and  only  one  teacher 
in  twenty  does  masterly  class  work.  As  the  result  of 
this  criminal  neglect,  the  waste  of  pupil  energy  is  ap- 
palling. The  skilful  lesson  plan  characterizes  good 

class  work. 
12 


162  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

5.  The  Drill.     u  Repeat   without   ceasing"    was 
Jacotot's  golden  rule.     The  dynamic  factors  of  mas- 
tery are  attention,  interest,  doing.     The  new  is  con- 
stantly assimilated  with  the  old.     A  little  truth  gained 
is  applied  in  many  ways.     Doing  supplements  know- 
ing and  telling.     The  learner  repeats  and  repeats  un- 
til he  feels  the  spirit  of  mastery ;  but  repetition  is 
never  mechanical  memory ;  the  repetition  is  ever  in 
new  forms.     Problem  after  problem  is  solved  and  ex- 
plained.    Example  after  example  is  given.     The  drill 
is  incalculably  helpful.     It  gives  the  pupil  courage 
and  strength  and  skill  to  advance.     As  the  teacher 
gains  teaching  insight  he  drills  his  pupils  more  and 
more.     This   is  what   is   meant   by  thorough  work. 
The  efficient  drill  characterizes  good  class  work. 

6.  The  Pre-survey.     The  lesson  assigned  is  the 
measure  of  teaching  skill.     In  nothing  is  the  wise 
teacher  more  painstaking  than  in  assigning  lessons. 
The  lesson  to  be  assigned  has  been  carefully  consid- 
ered.    How  much  can  the  pupil  do  well?     The  pre- 
survey  prepares  pupils  for  successful  study.     Two  or 
three  minutes  are  spent  in  a  pre-examination  of  the 
lesson  topic.     An  interest  in  the  new  lesson  is  awak- 
ened and  helpful  suggestions  are  given.    In  all  classes 
below  the  college  the  pre-survey  is  necessary  to  the 
best  class  work.     The  helpful  pre-survey  characterizes 
good  class  work. 

EDUCATIVE  CLASS  METHODS. 

These  are  effective  ways  of  doing  class  work.  The 
aim  is  culture  through  mastery.  The  recitation  plan 
must  first  of  all  be  grounded  in  principles.  Teaching 


EDUCATIVE  CLASS   METHODS  AND  DEVICES.  163 

as  an  art  is  rooted  in  education  as  science.  Educa- 
tional laws  guide  the  educator.  Skilful  adaptation 
is  cardinal.  A  sound  plan  of  class  work  that  thor- 
oughly enlists  the  pupils  and  fully  utilizes  teacher  and 
pupil  effort  may  be  counted  a  good  class  method. 

Class  methods  are  systematic  plans  of  class  work. 
The  prepared  teacher  works  out  well-considered  plans. 
We  speak  of  special  class  methods,  but  we  always  think 
of  class  methods  as  the  ways  of  doing  class  work.  The 
teacher  blends  into  harmony  good  methods  and  help- 
ful devices. 

1.  Unity  Method.     Unity  through  law  is  funda- 
mental.    Amid  endless  diversity  there  is  marvelous 
agreement  in  the  essentials.     The  processes  of  teach- 
ing and  learning  are  ever  the  same.     Perceiving  and 
apperceiving,  discriminating  and  assimilating,  analyz- 
ing and  synthetizing,  induction  and  deduction,  enter 
into  the  warp  and  woof  of  learning  and  teaching. 
Development  of   power  through   the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  is   the  common   purpose.     Great  princi- 
ples give   unity  to  class  work.     Leading   pupils   to 
apperceive  their  acquisitions  and  thereby  unify  them 
is  the  very  essence  of  good  class  work. 

2.  Individual  Method.     The   teacher  studies  to 
understand  each  pupil.     He  does  his  best  to  bring 
out  the  individuality  of  each  member  of  the  class. 
Everything  is  made  to  contribute  to  the  unfolding 
of  the  individual  pupil.     In  class  work  each  genuine 
teacher  works  in  his  own  ways.     In  all  the  world  we 
do  not  find  two  true  teachers  pursuing  the  same  class 
methods.     A  true  recitation  is  a  new  creation.     Pupil 
betterment  is  the  test.     Each  teacher  constantly  asks 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

himself,  What  are  the  best  ways  to  elicit  the  best  efforts 
of  each  pupil  ?  Class  methods  which  thoroughly  en- 
list each  pupil  in  the  class  work  are  highly  educative. 

3.  Investigation  Class  Method.     The  teacher  sys- 
tematically leads  pupils  to  find  out.     The  class,  led  by 
the   teacher,  investigate,  search   for   truth.     All   re- 
search, all  experimenting,  all  explaining,  all  laboratory 
work,  all  efforts  to  find  out  and  understand,  are  in- 
cluded in  the  investigation  class  method.     Good  class 
methods  are  good  ways  of  investigating.     All  educa- 
tional progress,  all  teaching  plans,  all  helpful  class  de- 
vices, and  all  teaching  facilities,  are  included  in  this 
all-comprehending    investigation   method.     Teaching 
plans  are  ways  of  investigating.     These  plans  may  be 
grouped   as  the   teaching-question    plan,  the   topical 
plan,  the  discussion  plan,  the  conversational  lecture 
plan,  and  the  lecture  plan.     The  ideal  recitation  skil- 
fully combines  these  ways  of  investigation. 

4.  The    Teaching-question   Method.     By    skilful 
questioning  the  teacher  leads  the  pupil  to  find  out  for 
himself.     Socrates  so  questioned  as  to  incite  and  lead 
the  investigator  to  discover  truth.     The  Socratic  ques- 
tion is  the  teaching  question,  and  is  sometimes  called 
the  Socratic  method  or  the  teaching-question  method. 
The  following  incident,  adapted  to  our  environments, 
is  a  good  example  : 

Meno.  "  Socrates,  we  come  to  you  feeling  strong  and  wise ;  we 
leave  you  feeling  helpless  and  ignorant.  Why  is  this?" 

Socrates.  "  I  will  show  you."  Calling  a  young  Greek,  and  mak- 
ing a  line  in  the  sand,  he  proceeded :  "  Boy,  how  long  is  this  line  f  " 

Boy.  "  It  is  a  foot  long,  sir." 

Socrates.  "  How  long  is  this  line!" 

Soy.  "  It  is  two  feet  long,  sir." 


EDUCATIVE  CLASS  METHODS  AND  DEVICES.  165 

Socrates.  "  How  much  larger  would  be  the  square  constructed 
on  the  second  line  than  on  the  first  line  I " 

Boy.  "  It  would  be  twice  as  large,  sir." 

Under  the  direction  of  the  boy,  Socrates  constructs  the  two 
squares. 

Socrates.  "How  much  larger  than  the  first  did  you  say  the 
second  square  would  be  I " 

Boy.  "  I  said  it  would  be  twice  as  large." 

Socrates.  "  How  much  larger  is  it  ?  " 

Boy.  "  It  is  four  times  as  large." 

Socrates.  "  Thank  you,  my  boy ;  you  may  go. — Meno,  that  boy 
came  to  me  full  of  confidence,  thinking  himself  wise.  I  told  him 
nothing.  By  a  few  simple  questions  I  led  him  to  see  his  error 
and  discover  the  truth.  Though  really  wiser,  he  goes  away  feel- 
ing humbled." 

The  teaching  question  elicits  attention,  awakens 
interest,  and  guides  effort.  It  gives  the  learner  the 
pleasure  of  discovering  the  truth.  The  teacher  and 
pupil  investigate  together,  but  the  pupil  finds  out  for 
himself.  The  teaching  question,  though  older  than 
Socrates,  is  a  striking  characteristic  of  the  new  educa- 
tion. The  true  teacher  so  questions  as  to  lead  the 
pupil  to  find  out  what  he  does  not  know,  but  the 
schoolkeeper  so  questions  as  to  lead  the  pupil  to  re- 
peat what  he  already  knows.  The  teaching  question 
is  one  of  the  best  features  of  helpful  class  work, 
while  the  old  question-and-answer  method  is  one  of 
the  worst. 

5.  The  Conversation  Method.  Genuine  teaching 
is  largely  conversational.  This  form  of  class  work 
unifies  teacher  and  pupil  effort  to  find  out.  The 
best  oral  teaching  is  conversational.  The  story,  the 
conduct  lesson,  and  the  oral  science  lesson  are  mostly 
conversational.  Pupils  are  led  to  contribute  all  they 


166  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AXD  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

know,  and  to  ask  about  the  new  lesson.  At  every 
step  the  pupils  work  with  the  teacher.  The  con- 
versation includes  the  teaching  question,  but  it  also 
imparts  information  to  prepared  pupils.  Teacher 
and  pupils  investigate,  examine,  talk  over  the  matter, 
ask,  and  answer.  The  conversation  must  never  de- 
generate into  a  monologue.  The  great  art  is  to  get 
the  pupils  to  enter  heartily  into  the  conversational  in- 
vestigation. 

6.  The  Topic  Method.     In  this  method  the  class 
.  investigate  systematically.     The  lesson  topic  includes 

several  subtopics  which  are  examined  one  by  one. 
The  topic  method  includes  the  teaching  question,  the 
conversation,  and  the  discussion  methods.  One  or 
two  pupils  tell  what  they  know  about  a  subtopic, 
after  which  the  class  examine  the  topic.  When  used 
judiciously  the  topic  method  may  be  made  the  basis 
of  systematic  class  work,  but  its  exclusive  use  is  fatal 
to  educative  work.  Mere  topic  work  excludes  in- 
vestigation, and  admirably  suits  the  schoolkeeper,  for 
it  excludes  teaching.  The  true  topic  method  involves 
all  the  other  methods  of  investigating. 

7.  The  Discussion  Method.     This  is  the  method 
to  develop  power.     The  world  needs  oaks  rather  than 
willows.    Discussion  develops  a  sturdy  manhood.    The 
class    investigate    together.     In   brief    speeches    the 
pupils  present  and  defend  their  positions.     Nothing 
arouses  greater  interest  or  calls  forth  more  vigorous 
effort   than  well-directed  discussion.     The  discussion 
tends  to  develop  vigorous  thought  and  independent 
expression.    As  iron  sharpens  iron,  so  discussion  sharp- 
ens mind.     The  Jesuits  used  this  method  in  develop- 


EDUCATIVE  CLASS  METHODS  AND   DEVICES.  107 

ing  an  army  of  mighty  men.  Educationally,  discus- 
sion stands  very  high.  In  these  mental  conflicts  the 
utmost  power  of  the  pupil  is  put  forth.  He  acquires 
cogency  of  thought  and  vigour  of  expression.  He 
learns  to  respect  the  positions  of  others,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  manfully  maintain  his  own.  There  is 
no  better  way  to  cultivate  independence,  self-asser- 
tion, liberality,  and  the  habit  of  treating  an  opponent 
courteously  and  fairly.  The  discussion,  from  the  pri- 
mary to  the  university,  may  be  made  helpful ;  it  does 
most  to  abolish  stupidity  and  indifference  in  class 
work.  The  teacher  so  manages  the  discussion  as  to 
develop  the  spirit  of  investigation  rather  than  the 
spirit  of  victory.  A  weak  teacher  does  well  to  pro- 
hibit discussion.  The  strong  teacher  uses  the  discus- 
sion method  judiciously,  and  finds  it  a  tremendous 
educative  force. 

8.  The  Lecture  Method.  The  learners  think  with 
the  lecturer.  The  living  teacher  leads  the  research, 
giving  information  and  inspiration.  The  lecture 
method  instructs.  Through  the  centuries  the  lecture 
has  been  a  marvellous  educative  means.  We  think  of 
Aristotle  and  Kant  and  Jesus  as  teaching  by  lectures. 
These  masters  combined  the  conversation  and  lecture 
methods.  Surely  the  lecture  has  its  place  in  class 
work.  Where  ?  Not  in  the  elementary  ;  not  usually 
in  the  high  school ;  not  usually  in  the  freshman  and 
junior  college  classes.  Elementary  pupils  are  not 
prepared  to  profit  by  lectures.  The  true  elementary 
oral  work  is  the  conversation,  and  not  the  lecture. 
High-school  pupils  are  trained  to  think  with  the  lec- 
turer, and  the  occasional  lecture  proves  highly  bene- 


168  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

ficial ;  but  the  lecture  is  not  the  form  of  high- 
school  educative  class  work.  As  a  rule,  the  freshman 
and  sophomore  college  students  are  hurt  and  not 
helped  by  the  too  frequent  lecture.  The  occasional 
lecture  or  course  of  lectures  in  some  subjects  do  great 
good,  but  thorough  teaching  during  these  precious 
years  is  imperative.  The  place  for  the  lecture  in  class 
work  is  in  the  junior  and  senior  college  classes,  in  the 
graduate  work,  and  in  the  professional  schools.  The 
advanced  students  think  with  the  lecturer  as  he  leads 
them  into  fields  of  research  and  into  the  realms  of 
philosophical  investigation.  But  even  in  the  advanced 
work  the  lecture  must  be  supplemented  by  good  teach- 
ing. 

HELPFUL  CLASS  DEVICES. 

These  are  expedients  for  improving  class  work. 
The  careless  teacher  sometimes  speaks  of  these  helps 
as  methods.  We  think  of  fundamental  and  guiding 
truths  as  educational  principles ;  of  systematic  plans 
of  school  work  as  methods ;  and  of  temporary  expe- 
dients as  devices.  The  ingenious  teacher  pursues  sys- 
matic  methods,  but  uses  countless  devices.  We  think 
of  the  topic  plan  of  class  work  as  a  class  method,  but 
we  think  of  blackboard  work  as  a  device.  We  rejoice 
in  all  helpful  school  devices,  but  we  deprecate  mere 
novelty,  and  condemn  pretentious  but  uneducative  de- 
vices. A  few  approved  devices  will  serve  as  sugges- 
tions. 

1.  The  Class.  This  is  a  device  to  economize  time 
and  energy,  to  utilize  the  group  forces,  and  to  foster 
the  habit  of  working  with  others.  But  the  class  does 
not  sink  the  individual  in  the  group.  Each  pupil 


EDUCATIVE  CLASS  METHODS  AND   DEVICES.  169 

must  be  as  well  cared  for  as  though  the  instruction 
was  to  him  alone.  This  is  often  overlooked.  The 
superficial  teacher  addresses  the  class  as  a  whole ;  if 
there  is  a  fair  amount  of  attention  he  is  satisfied. 
This  is  a  fatal  mistake.  The  class  must  not  be  dealt 
with  as  a  compound,  but  as  an  organism  made  up  of 
individuals.  It  must  be  dealt  with  as  a  skilful  florist 
deals  with  his  plants,  where  each  plant  has  the  culture 
it  needs,  to  the  manifest  advantage  of  the  whole. 

2.  Written    Work   supplements    oral    work.      In 
school  and  college,  in  our  times,  about  one  third  of 
the  class  work  is  written  work.     When  at  the  board, 
it  is  board  work  ;  when  at  the  seat,  it  is  tablet  work. 
The  writing  tablet  has  supplanted  the  slate.     Study- 
ing or  reciting,  the  pupil  finds  constant  use  for  the 
tablet.     The  gain   by  this  device  is  immense.      All 
members  of  the  class  work.    But  there  is  danger  here. 
Real  teaching  must  always  be  mainly  oral,  and  must 
be  supplemented  by  written  work.     Written  work  is 
a  leading  class  device,  but  must  not  be  carried  to  ex- 
tremes. 

3.  Laboratory  Work.     Learners  are  led  to  gain 
knowledge  first  hand.     Laboratory  work  has  become  a 
marvellous  educative  device,  entering  as  it  does  in  some 
form  into  nearly  all  school  work.     It  is  used  to  include 
all  work  in  which  the  pupils  individually  seek  truth 
through  observation,  measurement,  and  experiment. 
In  class  laboratory  work  the  teacher  directs  the  investi- 
gation, and  all  concentrate  on  the  study  of  one  thing. 
Each  pupil  will,  when  possible,  do  individual  work. 
One  experiment  made  by  the  pupil  helps  more  than  a 
score  made   by  the  teacher.     Laboratory  work  is  i\ 


170  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

most  helpful  class  device,  and  must  be  used  to  supple- 
ment all  forms  of  efficient  teaching. 

4.  Outline  Work.     This  device  systematizes  class 
work.     After  a  subject  has  been  mastered  in  detail,  it 
is  reviewed  in  outline.     The  diagram  is  the  last  syn- 
thesis.    The   outline   aids   memory  and   enables   the 
learner  to  grasp  the  subject  as  a  whole.     It  leads  to 
the  mastery  of  essentials  and  the  omission  of  burden- 
some details.     But   the  outline   is  merely  a  device. 
Pupils  starve  when  fed  on  skeletons.     We  begin  with 
the  concrete,  and  work  up  to  classes,  definitions,  rules, 
principles,  diagrams.     We  begin  with  particulars  and 
work  up  to  outlines.    Modern  text-books  rightly  place 
the  outline  at  the  close  of  the  subject.    To  begin  with 
diagrams,  to  teach  from  diagrams,  and  to  depend  upon 
diagrams  are  fundamental  educational   errors.     The 
outline  wisely  used  is  an  excellent  class  device.     The 
teacher  leads  the  pupil  up  step  by  step  and  then  the 
steps  are  outlined.     The  pupils  make  the  outlines. 

5.  Reporting    Work.     This   device    leads    to   re- 
search.   In  every  class  we  have  bright  pupils  who  are 
able   to  do  extra  work;  we  manage    to   have   these 
pupils   prepare   interesting    reports   bearing   on   the 
work  of  the  class.     It  is  a  valuable  device  to  appoint 
a  pupil  to  examine  and  report  on  a  topic  connected 
with  the  lesson.     These  reports  are  brief,  but  interest- 
ing.    They  are  in  the  line  of  original  research,  and 
help  the  pupil  and  the  class. 

6.  Teaching  Work.     This  device  multiplies  indi- 
vidual effort.     The  topic  has  been  thoroughly  investi- 
gated, but  the  pupils   need  the  drill.     The  class  is 
divided  into  groups  of  two  or  more  each,  and  the 


EDUCATIVE  CLASS  METHODS  AND  DEVICES.  171 

pupils  in  a  group  in  turn  act  as  teacher  of  the  group. 
For  large  classes  this  is  a  valuable  artifice,  as  it  greatly 
multiplies  individual  work.  In  normal  work  it  is 
found  to  be  an  admirable  device  for  practice  teaching 
in  advanced  work.  The  wide-awake  teacher  will  use 
teaching  work  sparingly,  but  will  never  rely  upon  it. 
Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  individual  teaching. 
Teaching  work  breaks  up  monotony  and  is  admirable 
for  drill.  Teaching  is  remarkably  educative;  all 
pupils  take  delight  in  teaching.  Teaching  work  often 
does  more  to  interest  pupils  than  any  other  device. 
However,  we  must  keep  in  mind  that  this  is  merely  a 
temporary  expedient  to  be  used  occasionally. 

7.  Concert  Work.     This  device  enlivens  the  reci- 
tation.    Class  work  sometimes  drags.     Concert  work, 
used  occasionally,  arouses  the  pupils.     The  members 
of  a  section  or  of  the  entire  class  answer  together. 
To  overcome  timidity,  to  quicken  the  interest,  or  to 
fix  a  fact,  this  device  may  be  used  sparingly.     We  use 
it  most  with  young  pupils ;    as  the  pupils  advance 
we  use  it  less  and   less.     In  some  subjects  concert 
work  affords  a  valuable  drill.     It   may   be  advanta- 
geously used  to  a  limited  extent  in  all  classes,  but  espe- 
cially in  oral  work.     The  exclusive  concert  method  is  a 
sure  cure  for  study  and  for  thorough  teaching.     Con- 
cert teaching  is  showy  but  shallow,  and  is  favoured  by 
"  f uss-and-feather  "  teachers.     The  honest  teacher  will 
use  the  concert  method  sparingly  and  judiciously. 

8.  Original  Class  Devices.     Numerous  other  de- 
vices are  of  great  value,  but  there  is  danger  of  perplex- 
ing the  young  teacher.     The  orator,  while  speaking, 
never  thinks  of  the  principles  of  elocution  or  of  the 


172  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

intonations  of  his  voice.  The  artist  seems  inspired, 
but  hard  work  is  the  source  of  the  inspiration.  While 
teaching,  the  educational  artist  seldom  thinks  of  prin- 
ciples or  methods  or  devices.  Having  mastered  these 
in  detail,  he  intuitively  pursues  the  method  and  uses 
the  device  best  suited  to  his  purpose  at  the  time.  He 
is  the  master  of  some  methods  and  many  devices,  but 
the  slave  of  none.  From  time  to  time  he  uses  such 
as  he  deems  most  helpful.  He  often  thinks  of  the 
story  of  David  and  his  sling,  and  relies  most  on  his 
common  sense.  He  finds  that  one  of  his  own  devices 
to  meet  conditions  is  of  more  value  than  many  second- 
hand devices. 


CIIAPTEE  XVII. 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    HELPFUL   SCHOOL   AND 
CLASS   TACTICS. 

BY  school  tactics  is  meant  a  system  of  signals  and 
movements  adapted  to  school  work.  The  object  is  to 
promote  order  and  orderly  habits  and  facilitate  work. 
Suitable  school  and  class  tactics  save  time,  improve 
the  symmetry  and  spirit  of  the  school,  and  train  to 
habits  of  prompt  and  exact  obedience.  The  wise 
teacher  uses  with  judgment  sensible  school  tactics. 

Principles  determine  Signals  and  Movements. — The 
fitness  should  be  obvious  to  the  pupils.  Everything 
to  help  and  nothing  to  hurt  is  the  cardinal  princi- 
ple. All  required  movements  should  be  necessary. 
Changes  are  made  with  the  least  expenditure  of  time 


HELPFUL  SCHOOL  AND  CLASS  TACTICS.      173 

and  energy  consistent  with  fitness.  Signals  should  be 
few.  No  time  or  energy  should  be  wasted  on  the 
purely  mechanical.  Numerous  signals  confuse  and 
squander  the  energies  of  teacher  and  pupils.  Signals 
should  be  specific.  Words  of  command  are  usually 
best  in  class  work.  Gentle  bell  taps  are  the  best  sig- 
nals for  movements.  Our  school  tactics  should  be 
uniform,.  Much  will  be  gained  in  school,  as  in  mili- 
tary tactics,  by  general  uniformity.  Variety  in  teach- 
ing but  uniformity  in  tactics  is  a  school  desideratum. 
Words  of  command-  should  be  given  in  a  low,  firm 
tone.  Commands  given  in  a  thin,  faltering  tone  and 
with  the  rising  inflection  cause  the  pupils  to  smile 
and  hesitate.  Good  elocution  commands  respect  and 
obedience.  Movements  must  be  executed  quickly, 
quietly,  and  with  precision.  Noisy,  dilatory,  slov- 
enly movements  are  distressing,  and  result  in  bad 
habits.  The  greatest  freedom  consistent  with  good 
order  should  be  permitted  during  movements.  Pu- 
pils are  trained  to  behave  properly  at  all  times,  but 
liberty  is  the  very  life  of  the  school.  The  martinet 
who  requires  pupils  to  march  with  folded  arms,  closed 
lips,  and  solemn  looks  should  be  a  trainer  of  monkeys. 
The  Electric  Programme  Clock  is  a  Serviceable 
Help. — It  relieves  the  teacher  of  the  time  strain  and 
secures  absolute  regularity  in  school  work.  The  clock 
taps  a  bell  in  each  room  three  minutes  before  the 
close  of  the  recitation  period  and  at  the  close.  Time 
is  thus  given  for  closing  the  lesson  and  for  the  pre- 
survey  of  the  next  lesson.  The  programme  clock 
thus  aids  in  school  management.  One  clock  regulates 
the  whole  school,  however  large,  ringing  any  num- 


174:  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

ber  of  programmes.  In  many  of  our  best  schools 
the  electric  programme  clock  calls  and  dismisses  all 
classes,  and  calls  and  dismisses  school.  "Books!" 
the  cry  of  the  old  schoolmaster,  is  no  longer  heard  in 
the  land. 

We  study  Economy  in  calling  and  dismissing  School. 
—All  school  buildings  should  be  constructed  in  view 
of  quick  entrance  and  exit,  so  that  the  school  can  be 
easily  called  or  dismissed  within  two  minutes.  In 
large  schools  it  seems  necessary  to  have  the  pupils 
form  in  line,  but  in  small  schools,  and  in  all  schools 
above  the  primary,  pupils  can  soon  be  trained  to  as- 
semble orderly  without  this  device.  The  plans  for 
calling  and  dismissing  school  vary  with  the  circuin 
stances.  The  one  essential  is  that  there  shall  be  good 
order.  The  clock  taps  the  bell ;  two  minutes  are 
given  for  assembling.  At  the  end  of  this  time  all 
are  required  to  be  in  places  and  the  clock  signals 
work ;  pupils  not  in  places  are  tardy.  This  plan 
works  well  in  all  schools  from  the  primary  school  to 
the  university. 

We  study  Economy  in  calling  and  dismissing  Glasses. 
— The  clock  taps  bells ;  instantly  the  pupils  rise,  turn, 
and  pass  to  recitation  places.  In  the  absence  of  the  sig- 
nal clock  the  call  bell  is  used.  The  teacher  so  plans  that 
the  pupils  move  without  confusion.  Much  skill  in 
planning  the  movements  is  necessary  in  large  schools. 
The  electric  bells  tap  three  minutes  before  the  close 
of  the  recitation  and  at  its  close.  At  the  closing  signal 
the  pupils  instantly  rise,  turn,  and  move  to  seats  in 
assembly  room  or  to  playgrounds.  Soon  pupils  may 
be  trained  to  move  with  precision  and  grace.  This  is 


HELPFUL  SCHOOL  AND  CLASS  TACTICS.      175 

the  perfection  of  school  tactics.  The  signal  clock  for 
rural  schools  is  inexpensive  but  invaluable.  It  rings 
a  bell  on  the  playgrounds  and  taps  a  bell  in  the  school- 
room. 

We  study  Fitness  in  Recitation  Tactics. — A  true 
class  is  a  group  of  pupils  who  can  work  together. 
The  best  class  tactics  waste  no  time  or  energy. 
Teacher  and  pupils  get  to  understand  each  other  and 
learn  to  work  together.  The  teacher  leads  in  the 
work,  and  directs  by  a  few  easy  signals  the  move- 
ments of  the  class.  In  school  tactics  signals  include 
words  of  command  as  well  as  mechanical  devices. 
The  old  schoolmaster  called  the  pupils  consecutively. 
He  began  at  the  head  of  the  class  and  proceeded  to 
the  foot.  "Next!"  was  his  one  signal.  The  old- 
time  professor  arranged  the  names  alphabetically  and 
called  on  the  pupils  as  the  names  occurred  on  the 
roll.  We  remember  the  dear  old  man  and  the  tricks 
we  used  to  play  on  him.  The  modern  teacher  treats 
the  class  as  a  unit ;  each  pupil  does  all  the  work. 
When  a  problem  is  given  or  a  question  asked,  each 
one  thinks  and  then  raises  the  hand.  Some  one  is 
called  and  hands  are  dropped,  but  any  pupil  may  be 
called  on  at  any  moment.  All  are  wide  awake.  Pu- 
pils raise  hands  to  answer,  to  criticise,  to  ask.  But 
no  one  can  specify  ;  each  teacher  pursues  his  own 
course.  You  manage  your  class  in  your  way. 

We  study  Economy  in  Blackboard  Tactics. — When 
called  to  the  board  pupils  await  signals.  At  the  sig- 
nal "Board!"  each  pupil  turns  to  the  left.  At  the 
signal  "Attention,!"  each  pupil  faces  to  the  right.  At 
the  signal  "Erase  !  "  the  pupils  turn  to  the  board  and 


176    SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

erase  by  moving  erasers  down.  At  the  signal  "  Write  !  " 
each  pupil  takes  a  crayon  and  proceeds  as  directed. 
These  are  the  sensible  signals  used  in  nearly  all  our 
schools.  Movements  are  orderly  and  graceful,  and 
much  time  is  saved.  As  the  crayon  troughs  are  cov- 
ered with  wire  gauze,  and  as  the  pupils  are  trained  to 
move  the  erasers  downward,  no  one  is  annoyed  by 
crayon  dust. 

We  study  Fitness  in  Concert  Tactics. — Pupils  re- 
spond when  called  on ;  otherwise  no  one  speaks. 
Nearly  all  class  work  is  individual,  but  occasional 
concert  responses  help.  At  the  signal  "  Class!"  all 
respond  in  concert.  At  the  signal  "  Boys  !  "  only  boys 
respond,  and  at  the  signal  "  Girls!"  only  girls  respond. 
Teaching  work,  to  a  limited  extent,  is  remarkably 
helpful.  The  class  is  divided  into  groups  of  two 
or  more  pupils  each  ;  at  the  signal  "  Ones  !  "  the  ones 
act  as  teachers  and  the  others  in  the  group  as  pupils  ; 
at  the  signal  "  Twos  !  "  the  twos  act  as  teachers  and  the 
others  as  pupils.  The  signal  "  Attention  !  "  closes  the 
exercise. 

Each  Teacher  studies  Well  a  System  of  School 
Tactics. — The  informal  teacher  manages  to  have  con- 
siderable freedom,  but  it  is  not  the  freedom  of  law. 
The  informal  school  always  impresses  us  as  a  dis- 
orderly school.  A  few  hours  of  faithful  study  and  a 
few  weeks  of  careful  practice  will  enable  even  inex- 
perienced teachers  to  master  helpful  school  tactics. 
Soon  you  can  work  easily  and  vigorously.  The  tone 
and  appearance  of  your  school  will  improve,  and  your 
efficiency  as  a  teacher  will  be  largely  augmented. 


EDUCATIVE  ORAL  AND  BOOK  WORK.         177 


CHAPTER  XYIIL 

PUPIL   IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    EDUCATIVE    ORAL  AND 
BOOK    WORK. 

We  think  of  the  Old  Education  as  Bookwork. — So 
many  pages  were  assigned  for  a  lesson  and  so  many 
pages  were  recited.  The  pupils  studied  the  book  and 

r    o  r    r 

the  teacher  heard  them  recite  the  book.  "Take  the 
next  lesson,"  was  the  stereotyped  form  of  assigning 
work.  The  college  professor  interpreted  the  book 
or  substituted  the  lecture  for  the  book.  Mechanical 
bookwork  very  largely  characterized  the  old  educa- 
tion. Learning  and  not  development  was  made  pri- 
mary. 

We  think  of  the  New  Education  as  combining  Oral 
and  Book  Work. — Intelligent  bookwork  is  preceded 
and  accompanied  by  oral  work.  The  pupil  works  face 
to  face  with  things,  and  gains  knowledge  first  hand. 
From  the  kindergarten  to  the  university  the  labora- 
tory method  predominates.  Things  are  studied  and 
books  are  used  as  helps.  Pupils  are  educated  to  inves- 
tigate. Experiment  and  research  are  made  the  basis. 
Judicious  oral  teaching  combined  with  rational  book- 
work  characterizes  the  new  education.  Development 
and  not  learning  is  primary. 

Oral  and  Book  Work  vary  with  the  Stages  of  Growth. 
-  Books  are  our  best  helps.  As  pupil  experience  en- 
larges books  are  used  more  and  more.  The  diagram 
indicates  in  some  degree  the  relative  amount  of  oral 
work  as  compared  with  bookwork  in  our  best  schools. 
18 


178  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


COLLI 


HIGH /SCHOOL 

fc/A* 

fl?/0? 


Possibly  the  proportion  of  college  bookwork  is  ex- 
aggerated in  view  of  the  marvellous  increase  of  the 
laboratory  work,  but  research  and  the  lectures  are 

, .  here  counted  as  bookwork.     At  first 

the  pupils  depend  on  the  teacher  for 
information,  but  as  they  advance 
they  come  to  depend  less  and  less 
on  the  teacher  and  more  and  more 
on  books. 

At  first  the  child  learns  about 
things  by  direct  inspection  ;  it  gains 
ideas  directly  from  material  objects 
and  from  its  own  conscious  activi- 
ties. As  the  months  multiply  the 
child  more  and  more  assimilates  im- 
mediate and  remembered  experi- 
ences in  forming  its  notions  of 
things.  Little  by  little  the  pupil 
learns  to  appropriate  the  experi- 
ences of  others.  Teacher  experience 
supplements  child  experience ;  the 
teacher  stimulates  and  guides  the 
efforts  of  the  child,  but  its  ideas  are  gained  directly 
through  its  own  experience.  This  is  oral  work.  When 
prepared  for  it  the  pupil  is  led  to  find  out  from  books. 
Printed  words  now  represent  to  the  pupil  ideas  of 
things  in  new  combinations.  The  learner  begins  to 
understand  symbols  and  so  gains  knowledge  from 
books.  This  is  bookwork. 

Kindergarten  Work  is  Oral;  Primary  Work  is 
Largely  Oral. — During  the  first  and  second  primary 
years,  as  during  the  kindergarten  years,  nearly  all 


KINDERGARTEN 


EDUCATIVE  OttAL   AND  BOOK  WORK.         179 

eaching  is  oral  work.  During  the  third  and  fourth 
years  nearly  three  fourths  of  the  work  is  still  oral. 
During  the  intermediate  years  books  become  more 
and  more  helpful,  but  oral  work  still  predominates. 
In  the  high  school  oral  and  book  work,  at  first,  are 
tibout  equal.  In  the  college,  bookwork  predominates 
as  research  and  the  lectures  are  counted  as  bookwork. 
As  the  learner  advances  he  enters  into  the  heritage  of 
human  learning  as  recorded  in  books,  but  at  every 
step  he  builds  on  his  own  experiences. 

ORAL  WORK  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

As  teachers  become  skilful  it  is  surprising  to  ob- 
serve the  preponderance  of  oral  work  in  our  elemen- 
tary schools. 

1.  The  Conduct  Lessons  are  Oral.     Even  in  the 
history  of  our  own  country,  conduct  bearings  must  be 
very  largely  oral  work.     The  study  lessons  are  oral,  but 
the  pupils  are  trained  to  find  out  from  books  as  well 
as  from  things.     The  lessons  in  general  history  and 
civics  are  oral  lessons.     Only  in  American  history  do 
we  have  strictly  bookwork. 

2.  Language- Literature  Lessons  are  partly  Oral. 
Reading  wisely  combines  oral  and  book  work,  and  so 
does  literature  after  the  second  year.     The  language 
lessons  and  composition  are  very  largely  oral  work. 
Things,  ideas,  symbols — this  is  the  order.     The  gram- 
mar lessons  during  the  seventh  and  eighth  years  may 
be  counted  as  book  lessons. 

3.  The   Mathematics   Lessons   'become  more  and 
more  Bookwork.     During  the  first  and  second  years 
all  the  lessons  are  oral.     Concrete  geometry  is  strict- 


180  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

ly  oral  throughout  the  elementary  course.  After  the 
second  year  arithmetic  combines  oral  and  book  work. 
AVe  class  the  so-called  mental  arithmetic  as  oral.  The 
algebra  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  may  be  con- 
sidered book  work. 

4.  The  Elementary  Science  Work  is  nearly  all 
Oral  Woi'k.     The  geography  lessons,  after  the  sec- 
ond year,  wisely  unite  oral  and  book  work,  but  dur- 
ing the  first  and  second  years  the  work  is  strictly  oral. 
The  biology  lessons  are  strictly  oral,  but  are  supple- 
mented by  the  library.     The  lessons  in  physics  are 
also  oral  lessons.     Except  in  geography  no  text-book 
is  used  in  the  science  studies. 

5.  During  the  Primary  Years  all  the  Art  Instruc- 
tion is  Oral.     During  the  intermediate  years  oral  and 
book  work  are  combined  in  drawing  and  vocal  music. 
The  instruction  in  physical  culture  and  manual  train- 
ing is  counted  as  oral. 

ORAL  TEACHING. 

Good  book  teaching  is  a  great  art,  but  good  oral 
teaching  is  a  greater.  Jesus  taught  orally.  Socrates, 
Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Pestalozzi  taught  orally.  What 
is  meant  by  oral  teaching?  Study  the  parable  of  the 
sower ;  by  means  of  the  most  familiar  incidents  Jesus 
teaches  the  people  the  greatest  truths.  Oral  teaching 
in  its  best  form  exercises,  it  is  estimated,  brain  areas 
threefold  greater  than  the  mechanical  book  teaching 
of  the  old  schoolmasters. 

1.  The  Teacher  leads  the  Learner  to  observe,  to 
investigate,  to  tell.  Each  pupil  is  given  a  leaf  to 
study,  to  draw,  to  describe.  The  teacher  leads  the 


EDUCATIVE  ORAL  AND   BOOK  WORK.         181 

learner  to  experience  and  discover  and  do  and  tell. 
Observation  lessons  are  fundamental.  Dr.  Hall  says : 
"  The  mechanical  learning  of  the  regulation  branches 
was  for  a  long  time  the  chief  work  of  the  school,  and 
it  affected  a  slight  brain  area.  When  the  objective 
work  came  in  its  best  form  the  area  awakened,  strength- 
ened, and  developed — was  increased  about  threefold." 

2.  The  Teacher  educates  through  the  Story.     Pu- 
pils are  led  to  discover  relations  and  duties  to  others. 
I  place  story  teaching  side  by  side  with  object  teach- 
ing.    Human  nature  interests  children  equally  with 
nature  studies.     The  parable,  the  anecdote,  the  fairy 
tale,  the  conduct  story,   the  history   story,   the  bio- 
graphical story,  the  tale  of  travel  and  exploration, 
are  some  of  the  forms  of  story  teaching.     As  a  rule, 
teacher  and  pupils  should  tell  the  stories  rather  than 
read  them.      The  fitting   story  is  a  great   educative 
means. 

3.  TJie  Teacher  by  apt  Illustrations  leads  Pupils 
to  see  clearly.     Familiar  examples  shed  a  flood  of  light 
on  the  dark  places.     The  abstract  is  illumined  by  the 
concrete.     As  far  as  possible  real  cases  should  be  used. 
Jesus  illustrated  his  lessons  by  giving  cases  of  real  men 
and  women.     Experience  with  realities  is  made  the 
basis,  and  illustrations  are  drawn  from  environments. 
Real  things  are  used  in  study  and  class  work  whenever 
possible. 

4.  The  Teacher  by  Illustrative  Apparatus  helps 
Pupils  to  gain  Insight.     The  many  illustrative  de- 
vices now  available  are  invaluable.     Pupils  are  trained 
to  make  and  use  illustrative  apparatus ;  manual  train- 
ing is  remarkably  helpful.     Maps,  charts,  diagrams, 


182  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

cuts,  pictures  representing  realities,  greatly  assist,  and 
all  schoolrooms  should  be  rich  in  these  helps. 

5.  The  Teacher  by  means  of  Drawing  educates. 
Agassiz  as  he  taught  represented  on  the  board  the 
various  stages  of  growth  from  the  egg  to  the  full- 
grown  bird.     Nothing  is  more  helpful  to  teacher  and 
pupil  than  skilful  drawing.     Even  crude  representa- 
tions illustrate.     Ability  to  draw  often  doubles  the 
efficiency  of  the  teacher. 

6.  The  Teacher  impresses  ly  Examples. — Even 
Kant  thus  makes  clear  some  things  in  his  philoso- 
phy.    Jesus    constantly   gives    examples.     At   every 
step   the  skilful  teacher  gives  illustrative  examples, 
and  also  leads  the  pupils  to  give  original  examples 
from  their  own  experience. 

BOOK  TEACHING. 

We  have  a  profound  respect  for  good  book  teach- 
ing. The  old  schoolmaster  taught  thoroughly  Latin 
and  Greek  and  mathematics,  and  thus  educated  for 
centuries  the  world's  leaders.  The  best  things  are 
in  books.  Oral  teaching  leads  to  individual  experi- 
ence ;  book  teaching  re-enforces  intuitive  knowledge 
by  all  learning.  Oral  teaching  leads  the  learner  to  lay 
a  foundation  in  personal  experience  ;  book  teaching  en- 
riches personal  experience  by  the  experience  of  the  race. 

1.  The  True  Teacher  is  known  oy  the  Lessons  as- 
signed for  Study.  A  definite  subject  with  a  definite 
book  lesson  is  assigned  for  study.  Efficient  teachers 
assign  short  book  lessons  such  as  pupils  can  and 
will  prepare.  Only  stupid  teachers  assign  unreason- 
able lessons. 


EDUCATIVE  ORAL  AND   BOOK  WORK.         183 

The  pre-survey  is  highly  important  for  young  pu- 
pils. In  assigning  the  lesson  the  teacher  leads  the 
pupils  to  grasp  the  relation  of  the  new  topic  to  the 
previous  work.  He  in  some  way  creates  interest  in 
the  new  lesson  and  gives  helpful  hints  about  its  study. 
In  all  elementary  classes  the  pre-survey  is  exceedingly 
helpful.  Even  our  successful  high-school  teachers  sel- 
dom fail  to  utilize  this  device. 

2.  The  Study  of  Book  Lessons  is  an  Art.     The 
pupil  is  trained  to  find  out  from  books.     The  pre- 
survey  connects  the  new  lesson  with  the  pupil's  world 
and  so  creates  interest.     The  pre-survey  shows  the  pu- 
pil how  to  study  the  lesson,  and  so  no  time  is  wasted. 
Occasionally  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  study  a  les- 
son together.     The  work  is  so  managed  that  pupils  ac- 
quire the  habit  of  diligent  and  efficient  study,  and  be- 
come expert  in  gaining  information  from  the  printed 
page. 

3.  The  Teaching  of  Book  Lessons  taxes  the  Teacher 
to  the  Utmost.     The  subject  is  tides.     What  does  the 
book  say  ?     What  do  you  say  ?     The  pupil  gives  in 
his  own  words  information  gained  from  the  book. 
Now  the  real  teaching  begins.     What  do  you  think  ? 
The  pupil  is  led  to  present  his  own  notions.     Helpful 
devices  are  used.     Oral  information  and  the  library 
supplement  the  text-book.     The  pupil's  outlook  en- 
larges, his  information  grows  broader  and  broader, 
and  his  grasp  of  things  becomes  greater  and  greater. 

4.  The  Right  Use  of  Books  is  a  School  Art.     No 
one  now  favours  the  slavish  use  of  text-books.     Mere 
memory  work  is  not  educative.     Repeating  is  well 
enough  for  the  phonograph.     Good   book  teaching 


184  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

trains  pupils  to  read  and  reflect,  to  examine  critically, 
to  fully  grasp  the  meaning  of  the  author,  to  thor- 
oughly assimilate  the  thought.  The  old-time  pro- 
fessors did  this  in  teaching  Latin  and  Greek.  We 
must  do  this  in  teaching  English  and  history  and 
science.  However  excellent  our  oral  teaching,  we 
leave  our  pupils  poor  indeed  if  we  fail  to  lead  them 
to  gain  the  art  of  mastering  the  printed  page.  (Kead 
Chapter  VIII.) 


CHAPTEK   XIX. 

GOOD   TEACHING   IN   LIEU   OF   EXTKANEOUS   INCENTIVES. 

THE  working  plan  here  outlined  accords  with  sound 
educational  principles  and  the  best  in  school  life.  It 
accords  with  common  sense  and  the  advanced  educa- 
tional thought  of  the  world.  It  strikes  at  the  root  of 
a  group  of  hurtful  devices  and  vicious  practices. 
Well-meaning  teachers  have  come  to  use  without  con- 
sideration the  per-cent  system  with  its  train  of  evils ; 
it  has  become  the  fashion.  Many  teachers  do  not 
now  see  how  they  could  manage  without  per-cent 
marking,  nor  did  the  old  schoolmaster  see  how  he 
could  get  on  without  the  rod.  But  with  good  teach- 
ing we  find  that  schools  get  on  vastly  better  without 
than  with  rods,  test  examinations,  and  per-cent  mark- 
ings. Let  us  calmly  re-examine  some  of  the  extrane- 
ous incentives  now  in  fashion  and  seek  for  better 
things. 


GOOD  TEACHING.  185 

WRITTEN  KECITATIONS  IN  LIEU  OF  TEST 
EXAMINATIONS. 

Vital  teaching  is  the  essential  thing.  It  creates 
and  sustains  interest,  and  interest  is  central  in  all 
school  work.  The  interested  pupil  feels  a  burning 
desire  to  find  out ;  he  truly  hungers  and  thirsts  for 
knowledge.  The  dreaded  test  examination,  cruel 
marking,  perverting  prizes,  and  other  extraneous  in- 
centives, are  not  even  thought  of  by  pupil  or  teacher. 
The  real  teacher,  it  is  true,  even  when  burdened  with 
these  incumbrances,  succeeds,  but  does  so  by  counter- 
acting in  some  degree  their  hurtful  tendencies.  In 
the  new  education,  teacher  and  pupils  are  freed  from 
hurtful  devices,  and  the  written  recitation  takes  the 
place  of  the  dreaded  test  examination.  Experience 
has  demonstrated  that  the  gain  by  this  substitution  is 
simply  incalculable.  The  periodic  examination  in  our 
schools  as  the  test  of  scholarship  and  as  the  standard 
for  promotion  may  be  wisely  consigned  to  the  limbo 
of  hurtful  school  devices ;  the  written  recitation  is  a 
beneficent  substitute.  Some  reasons  for  the  change 
are  given  in  outline  ;  the  elaboration  is  left  to  teachers. 

1.  The  Written  Recitation  is  Educative.  It  trains 
the  pupils  to  do  their  best  under  pressure.  During 
the  written  recitation  each  pupil  strives  to  produce  a 
brief  but  creditable  paper.  The  art  of  clear  thinking 
and  concise  expression  is  cultivated.  The  written 
recitation  has  all  the  merits  of  the  test  examination 
without  its  hurtful  characteristics  and  its  noneduca- 
tive  effects.  The  written  recitation  is  equally  adapted 
to  primary  and  university  classes. 


186  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

2.  The  Written  Recitation  occurs  when  needed. 
It  comes  whenever  the  teacher  deems  it  helpful.     No 
pupil  thinks  of  it  or  makes  special  preparation  for  it ; 
it  is  simply  a  recitation.    The  pupils  use  their  writing 
tablets,  and  so  are  always  ready  for  written  work. 
Periodicity  is  one  of  the  most  hurtful  features  of  the 
test  examination,  inevitably  leading  to  hurtful  cram- 
ming, spasmodic  study,  and  sly  cheating.     Stated  ex- 
aminations occasion  dread,  produce  injurious  excite- 
ment, and  seriously  interfere  with  the  regular  work. 
The   written  recitation   is  a  panacea  for  these  real 
evils. 

3.  The  Written  Recitation   is  in  Line  with  the 
Daily  Work.     It  helps  and  does  not  hurt.     There  is 
no  break  in  the  work,  and  hence  no  loss  of  time  or  in- 
terest.    The  topics  for  the  written  recitation  include 
the  new  lesson  as  well  as  the  previous  lessons.     Like 
all  good  class  work,  the  written  recitation  is  ap percep- 
tive ;  the  teacher  adapts  the  subject  to  the  pupils,  and 
each  pupil  writes  in  view  of  his  previous  acquisitions 
and  assimilates  into  unity  the  old  and  the  new.     On 
the  other  hand,  the  dreaded  test  examination  seriously 
interrupts  the  regular  class  work,  occasioning  the  edu- 
cational loss  of  one  or  more  days  every  month.     Pu- 
pils study  in  view  of  the  examination  and  waste  their 
energies  thinking  about  it.     The  hasty  cramming  is 
not  helpful  study.     The  incentive  is  not  wholesome. 
Then,  grading  these  test  papers  wastes  the  precious 
time  and  squanders  the  limited  energies  of  the  teacher. 
In  a  word,  the  usual  test  examination  injures  teacher 
and  pupils  and  seriously  interrupts  the  regular  school 
work.     The  written  recitation  remedies  these  evils. 


GOOD  TEACHING.  187 

4.  The    Written     Recitation     covers     Familiar 
Ground.     The  daily   review,  a  feature  of  all   good 
teaching,  keeps  the  whole  subject  fresh.     The  pupils 
write  well  because  they  know  thoroughly.    The  topics 
and  questions  are  definite  and  clear  and  embrace  the 
most    helpful   points.      Conundrums,   mere   tests   of 
memory,  unimportant  details,  and  smart  questions  are 
excluded.     The  aim  is  to  foster  thoughtful  and  help- 
ful habits  of  study  and  expression.     The  test  exami- 
nation deals  largely  with  unfamiliar  topics,  and  hence 
the  pupils  do  not  write  well.     Too  often  it  is  a  mere 
test  of  memory.     From  the  fact  that  it  is  made  a 
test   of  scholarship  it   seems   impossible  to  make  it 
educative. 

5.  Written  Recitations  count  as  other  Recitations. 
In  all  class  work  the  appreciative  teacher  approves 
good  work.      The  "  Well  done "  and  "  Try  again " 
come  spontaneously.    The  same  is  true  of  the  written 
recitation.    At  his  leisure  the  teacher  reads  the  papers. 
The  creditable  papers  are  marked  S  (satisfactory),  but 
some   papers   are   marked   U   (unsatisfactory).      The 
papers  thus  marked  are  returned  to  the  pupils.     The 
written   recitation   is  thought  of  and  valued  as  the 
ordinary  recitation.     The  S  and  the  U  are  taken  as  the 
"  Well  done  "  and  the  "  Try  again  "  in  the  daily  work. 
Skillful  teachers  train  their  pupils  to  criticise  written 
work.     The  dreaded  test  examination  is  the  educa- 
tional contrast.     The  pupils  think  of  little  else  than 
the  coming  examination,  for  it  determines  their  fate. 
On  it  depends  class  standing,  promotion,  graduation, 
prizes,  honours.     Modify  it  as  we  may,  the  pupils  will 
still  take  this  view  of  the  test  examination.     As  edu- 


188  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

cators,  we  see  no  way  to  avoid  expunging  from  our 
school  vocabulary  the  very  expression. 

6.  Good  Teaching  supplements  Oral  with  Written 
IVork.  In  the  high  school,  the  college,  and  the  pro- 
fessional school  written  work  supplements  the  lecture. 
During  the  first  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  of  the  recita- 
tion period  the  students  write  on  topics  discussed  in  the 
lectures,  in  the  text-books,  and  in  the  reference-books. 
The  teacher  finds  this  infinitely  better  than  the  ever- 
lasting lecture  and  the  dreadful  note-taking  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  test  examination.  We  find  the  professors 
who  know  how  to  teach  pursuing  this  plan  to  the  great 
advantage  of  the  students.  The  professor  comes  to 
know  the  work  of  each  student.  Occasionally  he  has 
a  written  recitation,  but  has  no  use  for  term  test  ex- 
aminations or  for  final  examinations.  Good  oral  teach- 
ing is  constantly  supplemented  by  written  work  in  our 
elementary  schools. 

Y.  The  Good  in  the  Old  is  retained  in  the  New. 
Only  the  evils  of  the  test  examination  are  discarded. 
The  written  recitation  embodies  the  spirit  of  the  new 
education,  just  as  the  test  examination  embodied  the 
spirit  of  the  old  education.  It  helps  and  does  not 
hurt.  It  is  safe  and  all-sufficient.  Many  of  our  best 
teachers  and  most  progressive  schools  have  substituted 
the  written  recitation  for  the  test  examination  with 
gratifying  results.  They  have  exchanged  a  hurtful  for 
a  helpful  device.  It  is  reasonable  to  predict  that  the 
test  examination  early  in  the  twentieth  century  will 
disappear  as  a  school  device,  and  will  be  replaced  by 
the  beneficent  written  recitation.  Good  teaching  and 
efficient  study  will  become  the  rule. 


GOOD  TEACHING.  189 

GOOD  TEACHING  IN  LIEU  OF  PER-CENT  MARKING. 

It  is  safe  to  class  per-cent  marking  as  a  hurtful  de- 
vice. As  the  rod  was  the  panacea  of  the  old  school- 
master, so  marking  is  the  panacea  of  the  modern 
stationary  teacher.  He  sits  with  pencil  in  hand  and 
marks  each  answer,  marks  each  violation  of  the  rules. 
Progressive  educators  substitute  vital  teaching  for 
marking  and  all  other  hurtful  devices.  Colonel  F.  "W. 
Parker  regards  per-cent  marking  as  criminal  as  steal- 
ing. Superintendent  Arnold  Tompkins  considers  the 
percentage  device  as  an  outrage  on  the  learning  proc- 
ess. "  If  100  per  cent/'  says  Dr.  E.  E.  White,  "  were 
a  chosen  idol,  then  worship  of  this  percentage  god 
would  not  be  more  harmful  than  it  is  in  many  schools." 
Per-cent  marking  injures  teacher  and  pupils,  nor  has  it 
a  single  redeeming  feature  ;  it  hurts  and  does  not  help. 

1.  Good  Teaching  appeals  to  all  High  Incentives. 
Study  is  duty  ;  study  fits  pupils  to  help  others  ;  study 
is  full  of  interest ;  study  leads  up  to  knowledge  and 
usefulness.  True  teaching  educates,  for  it  keeps  the 
learner  face  to  face  with  the  beauty  world  and  the 
truth  world  and  the  duty  world.  Every  lesson  makes 
for  character  as  well  as  for  scholarship.  But  per-cent 
marking  is  a  low  incentive.  It  magnifies  success  at 
the  expense  of  fidelity.  It  fosters  a  brood  of  school 
vipers,  such  as  honours,  prizes,  and  hurtful  emula- 
tions. It  abounds  in  the  exact  ratio  of  poor  teaching ; 
the  poorer  the  teaching  the  more  perfect  the  mark- 
ing. Good  teaching  leaves  no  time  or  occasion  for 
marking.  Too  often  per-cent  marking  proves  an 
antidote  to  high  thinking  and  moral  teaching. 


190  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

2.  Good  Teaching  induces  Effective  Study.     The 
pupil  is  deeply  interested  in  the  subject,  and  does  his 
best  to  find  out.     The  teacher  encourages  and  guides 
effort,  and  leads  the  pupils  in  their  exploring  expedi- 
tions.    The  pupil  comes  to  count  truth  more  precious 
than  diamonds.    Truth  is  its  own  reward,  but  per-cent 
marking  is   an  extraneous  incentive.     Marking  pro- 
poses as  a  reward  for  mechanical  success  a  high  mark, 
and  as  a  punishment  for  mechanical  failure  a  low 
mark.    It  may  make  an  army  of  slaves  to  the  per-cent 
god,  but  it  does  not  create  a  thirst  for  truth.     At  best 
it  is  an  artificial  and  hurtful  incentive.     It  comes  like 
a  hideous  goblin  between  the  teacher  and  the  pupils, 
between  the   learner   and    the   subject,  between  the 
learner  and  the  truth. 

3.  Good  Teaching  is  All-sufficient.     This  makes 
the  kindergarten  a  thing  of  beauty  and  the  modern 
primary  school  a  delight.     The  teacher  understands 
the  little  ones  and  adapts  the  work  to  them.     Each 
one  is  kept  interested  and  busy.     All  come  to  love 
the  work.    Marking  is  not  even  dreamed  of  in  kinder- 
garten and   primary  classes.     Good   teaching  is  all- 
sufficient  at  all  stages  of  growth.     Per-cent  marking 
nowhere   works   pupil   good.     Good   teaching,  from 
the  kindergarten  to  the  university,  excludes  marking 
as  not  only  useless  but  also  vicious: 

4.  Good  Teaching  economizes  Time  and  Energy. 
Pupil  energy  and    pupil   time   are   precious   things. 
Good  teaching  makes  pupil  effort  educative  and  im- 
proves the  golden  moments  as  they  fly.     The  teacher 
teaches.     Per-cent  marking  squanders  time  and  en- 
ergy.    Per-cent   marking   with   its   train    of   evils — 


GOOD  TEACHING.  191 

prizes,  honours,  test  examinations,  per-cent  records, 
per-cent  reports — wastes,  in  many  schools,  full  half 
the  energies  of  teacher  and  pupils.  It  is  the  monster 
educational  robber.  It  hurts  and  does  not  help.  The 
schoolkeeper  marks,  but  the  true  teacher  teaches. 

5.  Good  Teaching  discards  all  Forms  of  Co?n- 
parative  Marking.  All  marking  that  compels  the 
study  of  the  relative  merits  of  pupils  is  essentially 
vicious.  The  words  Poor,  Fair,  Good,  Excellent,  are 
preferable  to  per-cent  marks,  for  they  indicate  qual- 
ity of  work  rather  than  quantity.  But  all  the  same 
the  fundamental  law  is  violated.  Pupil  must  be  com- 
pared with  pupil.  As  an  incentive  to  good  conduct 
and  earnest  study,  qualitative  marking  retains  many  of 
the  evils  of  per-cent  marking.  All  marking,  qualita- 
tive or  quantitative,  in  which  pupil  is  compared  with 
pupil,  is  decidedly  hurtful.  But  one  question  is  either 
necessary  or  permissible  :  "  Is  the  pupil  doing  well  ? " 
This  the  teacher  asks  himself,  and  spares  no  effort  to 
secure  an  affirmative  answer.  Good  teaching  is  the 
legitimate  substitute  for  all  extraneous  incentives  and 
the  infallible  remedy  for  the  deplorable  marking  habit. 

EDUCATIVE  RECORDS  AND  REPORTS  IN  LIEU  OF 
PERCENTAGE  BOOKKEEPING. 

What  will  help  and  not  hurt  ?  Elaborate  school 
bookkeeping  is  simply  inexcusable ;  it  is  one  of  the 
numerous  evils  charged  to  the  account  of  the  percent- 
age system.  It  needlessly  dissipates  teaching  energy  ; 
it  imposes  weary  drudgery  without  giving  any  help- 
ful returns.  School  bookkeeping  should  be  reduced 
to  the  minimum.  The  blank  spaces  opposite  the  names 


192  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

indicate  satisfactory  conduct  and  scholarship ;  all  the 
time  and  energies  of  the  teacher  are  devoted  to  teach- 
ing. 

1.  Attendance  is  indicated  l>y  a  Blank  Space. 
Absence  is  indicated  by  a  I  ;  this  becomes  f  in  case 
of  A.  M.  tardiness ;  becomes  L  in  case  of  P.  M.  tardi- 
ness ;  becomes  +  when  the  absence  is  excused.     By 
dividing  the  school  or  class  into  sections,  with  leaders 
to  report  the  absent,  the  roll  call  is  almost  instanta- 
neous, even  in  large  schools  and  classes.     No  time  or 
energy  is  wasted  in  keeping  the  attendance  record. 
The  blank  is  the  sign  of  the  clear  record. 

2.  Conduct,  when  Satisfactory,  is  indicated  ~by  a 
Blank  Space.     When  unsatisfactory,  it  is  indicated 
by  U.     The  U  is  written  in  pencil,  in  order  that  it 
may  be  erased  as  soon  as  the  pupil's  conduct  becomes 
satisfactory.     A  clear  record  is  a  blank.     It  is  a  de- 
sideratum to  so  manage  that  each  pupil  will  have  a 
clear  conduct  record.     Demerit  marks  are  not  even 
thought  of  by  the  progressive  teacher  or  his  pupils. 
The  teacher  studies  most  of  all  to  promote  good  con- 
duct.    When  a  record  or  report  is  to  be  made,  one 
question,  and  only  one,  is  asked,  "  Is  the  pupil's  con- 
duct, taken  as  a  whole,  satisfactory  ? "     This  plan  is 
in  the  line  of  conduct  culture  and  wastes  no  time  or 
energy. 

3.  Class  Standing  is  indicated  by  a  Blank,  Space 
when  /Satisfactory.     When  unsatisfactory,  it  is  indi- 
cated by  the  letter   U.     "Is  the   pupil  doing  good 
work  ?  "     "  Is  the  learner  keeping  with  his  class  ? " 
The  blank  indicates  the  affirmative  and  the  U  a  nega- 
tive answer.     The  U  is  in  pencil.     The  teacher  spares 


GOOD  TEACHING.  193 

no  effort  to  induce  the  pupil  to  so  work  that  the  U  may 
be  erased.  The  record  is  strictly  private  ;  it  is  for  the 
teacher,  not  for  the  pupils.  The  teacher  must  know 
his  pupils  and  must  see  clearly  their  limitations.  The 
ideal  class  will  have  no  U's  in  the  final  record.  The 
U  indicates  that  the  pupil  is  not  working  with  the  class, 
and  that  he  must  work  np  or  be  dropped  to  a  lower 
class.  As  long  as  a  pupil  works  with  his  class  no  record 
is  needed ;  but  when  a  pupil  is  failing  to  keep  with  his 
class  the  matter  must  receive  attention.  The  utmost 
skill  of  the  teacher  is  required  in  these  cases. 

4.  Reports  indicate  the  Standing  of  the  Pupil. 
Conduct  and  scholarship,  when  satisfactory,  are  indi- 
cated by  S,  and  by  U  when  unsatisfactory.  Parents 
and  pupils  will  readily  understand  the  monthly  re- 
port cards,  and  school  boards  will  easily  understand 
the  monthly  reports.  The  words  Poor,  Fair,  Good, 
Excellent,  now  used  in  the  reports  of  most  schools, 
have  many  advantages  over  percentages.  The  esti- 
mate of  standing  is  qualitative,  not  quantitative ;  it 
requires  no  explanation.  But  these  harmless  words  oc- 
casion a  world  of  trouble.  Each  pupil  must  be  com- 
pared with  his  fellows  and  elaborate  records  must  be 
kept.  The  teacher  must  waste  precious  hours  settling 
the  relative  standing  of  pupils.  This  is  something  that 
ought  never  to  be  thought  of.  Pupils  will  certainly 
study  in  view  of  these  distinctions,  and  will  suiter 
nearly  all  the  evils  of  per-cent  marking.  Clearly 
such  records  and  reports  hurt  and  do  not  help.  They 
are  not  educative.  They  compare  pupil  with  pupil 
and  thus  foster  jealousies  and  rivalries.  Parents  and 
school  boards  do  not  wish  details ;  all  they  desire  to 

14 


194  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

know  is  whether  the  pupil  is  or  is  not  doing  well. 
The  S  signifies  that  the  pupil  is  progressing  satisfac- 
torily ;  the  U  signifies  that  the  pupil  is  not  doing 
well.  Whatever  is  more  than  this  comes  of  evil. 
Such  records  and  reports  answer  all  educative  pur- 
poses. .They  require  the  minimum  amount  of  teacher 
energy.  This  plan  commends  itself  to  all  thoughtful 
educators ;  and  is  equally  suited  to  all  schools  from  the 
kindergarten  to  the  university. 

GOOD  TEACHING  PREPARES  FOR  PROMOTION  AND 
GRADUATION. 

Interest  in  study  leads  to  mastery.  Day  by  day 
the  pupil  does  his  best  in  the  best  ways.  Growth  is 
the  result.  Good  conduct  and  good  scholarship  come 
of  good  teaching  and  good  management. 

1.  Promotion  follows  Satisfactory  Work.    It  does 
not  depend  on  per-cent  marks  or  on  test  examinations. 
Pupils  study  to  know.    They  become  interested  in  the 
work  and  advance  with  their  classes.     As  the  days  go 
by,  pupils  found  able  to  work  more  profitably  with 
higher  classes  are  promoted,  and  pupils  who  prove  un- 
able to  work  with  their  classes  are  demoted.     As  the 
terms  go  by,  pupils  who  do  satisfactory  work  go  for- 
ward with  the  classes.     The  teacher  knows.     There 
can  be  no  possible  excuse  for  per-cent  marking  or  for 
test  examinations  as  conditions  for  promotion  or  gradu- 
ation ;  such  devices  occasion  a  world  of  trouble  and 
do  incalculable  injury.     Good  management  and  good 
teaching  remedy  these  evils. 

2.  Graduation  follows  the  Satisfactory  Comple- 
tion of  the   Course.     The   pupil   advances,  step   by 


GOOD  TEACHING.  195 

step,  through  the  elementary  work  and  receives  the 
elementary-school  certificate ;  this  entitles  him  to 
enter  the  high  school.  The  student  advances,  year 
by  year,  in  the  high-school  work,  and  on  its  satis- 
factory completion  receives  the  high-school  diploma; 
this  entitles  him  to  enter  the  normal  school  or  the 
college.  The  college  student  completes  satisfactorily 
a  college  course  and  receives  the  college  diploma ;  this 
entitles  him  to  enter  a  professional  school.  The  ele- 
mentary certificate  means  that  the  pupil  has  satisfac- 
torily completed  the  elementary-school  course  and  is 
prepared  to  do  high-school  work.  The  high-school 
diploma  means  that  the  student  has  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted a  high-school  course  and  is  prepared  for  col- 
lege work.  The  college  diploma  means  that  the  stu- 
dent has  satisfactorily  completed  a  college  course  and 
is  prepared  to  enter  a  professional  school  or  begin  his 
life  work. 

The  plan  thus  outlined  eliminates  hurtful  drudgery 
and  harmful  devices  and  substitutes  good  teaching.  It 
makes  all  school  work  educative.  It  substitutes  high 
motives  for  low  incentives.  The  per-cent  marking  per- 
functory drudge  will  for  a  time  plod  on  in  his  ruts,  but 
the  true  teacher  will  teach  and  grow  and  bless.  The 
teacher  must  not  be  fanatical  nor  even  extreme,  but 
must  be  progressive.  What  human  reason  has  demon- 
strated and  human  experience  verified,  that  is  safe. 
Educational  conservatism  becomes  a  crime  when  it 
keeps  teachers  in  the  ruts.  We  dare  not  keep  on  in 
ways  that  work  our  pupils  irreparable  injury  ;  nor  do 
we  dare  to  deprive  our  pupils  of  the  advantages  of 
new  and  better  ways. 


196  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 
EDUCATIVE  CLASS  MANAGEMENT. 

EDUCATIVE   STUDY    HINTS   AND   TOPICS   FOR   DISCUSSION. 

XV.  Class  Organization  and  Control. — Describe  the  evolution  of 
classification.     Compare  individualism  and  classification.     In  the 
school  sense,  what  is  a  true  class  ?    Discuss  objects  of  classifica- 
tion ;  plan  of  classification  ;   size  of  classes ;  inspiration  of  the 
class ;  advantages  of  the  class.     Describe  the  hygienic  conditions 
of  educative  class  work.     How  does  it  help  to  give  a  short  recess 
at  the  close  of  each  school  hour?    State  some  of  the  advantages 
of  happy  class  control.     Why  must  each  teacher  work  out  anew 
the  problems  of  classification  I    Describe  the  scheme  for  classify- 
ing the  rural  school ;  the  primary ;  the  intermediate ;  the  high 
school;  the  college.     Why  do   educators  plan  simplicity1?  uni- 
formity ?    unity  ?     Describe   your   scheme   for   classifying  your 
school. 

XVI.  Educative  Class  Work. — Make  clear  the  difference  between 
educative  and  noneducative  class  work.     Give  the  old  and  new 
meaning  of  recitation.    Why  do  you  prefer  class  workl    Name 
some  characteristics  of  excellent  class  work.     Discuss  fully  spon- 
taneity ;  revealing  and  concealing ;  review  and  recapitulation ; 
lesson  plan  ;  the  drill ;  the  pre-survey. 

Define  class  methods;  efficient  class  methods;  hurtful  class 
methods.  Discuss  the  unity  method ;  the  individual  method ; 
the  investigation  method ;  the  Socratic  method ;  the  conversa- 
tion method ;  the  topic  method ;  the  discussion  method ;  the  lec- 
ture method.  Give  an  example  of  each. 

Define  class  device.  Illustrate  the  distinction  you  make  be- 
tween a  class  method  and  a  class  device.  State  some  advantages 
claimed  for  the  following  devices:  The  class;  written  work;  labo- 
ratory work;  diagrams;  reporting;  reciprocal  teaching;  concert 
work ;  original  devices. 

XVII.  School  and  Class  Tactics. — Give  the  meaning  and  object 
of  school  tactics.     What  do  you  mean  by  helpful  tactics?  by  hurt- 
ful tactics ?    State  some  underlying  principles.    Give  some  reasons 
why  every  school  should  have  an  electric  programme  clock.    De- 
scribe the  economic  plan  for  calling  and  dismissing  school ;  calling 
and  dismissing  classes.     Describe  fitting  recitation  tactics ;  board 


GOOD  TEACHING.  197 

tactics ;  concert  tactics.    Why  do  you  favour  reasonable  school  and 
class  tactics  I 

XVIII,  Oral  Work  and  Book  Work.— Why  do  we  think  of  the  old 
education  as  bookwork  I     W  hat  does  the  new  education  do  ?    Why 
must  oral  work  precede  and  accompany  bookwork?    Discuss  oral 
work  in  the  kindergarten  ;  in  conduct  lessons ;  in  language-liter- 
ature lessons ;  in  science  lessons ;  in  mathematic  lessons ;  in  art 
lessons. 

What  is  meant  by  oral  teaching?  Give  an  example  of  obser- 
vation oral  teaching ;  of  the  story ;  of  illustration ;  of  drawing ; 
of  example.  Name  three  advantages  claimed  for  oral  teaching. 

What  is  meant  by  book  teaching?  Compare  book  and  oral 
teaching.  Discuss  assigning  lessons ;  studying  book  lessons ; 
teaching  book  lessons.  Why  does  Dr.  Harris  consider  the  art  of 
properly  using  books  the  greatest  of  school  arts  ?  See  pp.  75,  80. 

XIX.  Good  Teaching  in  Lieu  of  Extraneous  Incentives. — Com- 
pare good  teaching  and  perfunctory  class  work.    Contrast  the 
written  recitation  and  the  test  examination.     Discuss  the  reasons 
for  transforming  the  examination  into  the  written  recitation.    De- 
scribe the  marking  expert.     What  does  Colonel  Parker  say  about 
100  per  cent?    Dr.  White?    Superintendent  Thompson?    What 
have  you  to  say  ?    Discuss  the  reasons  why  good  teaching  should 
take  the  place  of  per-cent  marking. 

What  is  meant  by  educative  records  and  reports?  Explain 
your  plan  of  calling  roll  and  recording  attendance.  State  advan- 
tages. State  your  plan  of  keeping  the  conduct  record.  Why  is 
it  better  than  the  old  per-cent  record?  Explain  your  plan  of 
keeping  the  scholarship  record.  Give  your  reasons  for  it.  Ex- 
plain your  method  of  reporting.  What  are  its  advantages?  Why 
is  qualitative  marking  better  than  quantitative?  Give  your  rea- 
sons for  discarding  both.  Show  the  great  advantages  of  the  ra- 
tional method  of  promotion  and  graduation.  Why  should  we 
discard  the  old  plan  of  having  per-cent  marks  and  test  exami- 
nations determine  promotion  and  graduation  ?  Show  that  good 
teaching  tends  to  consign  all  extraneous  school  incentives  to  the 
limbo  of  hurtful  school  devices. 


PART  V. 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT    THROUGH  BETTER 

SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE  ORGANIZATION 

AND  CORRELATION. 


CHAPTER  XX.— PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EDUCATIVE  COR- 
RELATION OF  SCHOOLS  AND  SCHOOL  COURSES. 
XXI. — PUPIL     IMPROVEMENT     THROUGH     EFFICIENT 

RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

XXII. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EFFICIENT  KIN- 
DERGARTEN AND  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 
XXIII. — PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  SPECIALIZED  AND 

CORRELATED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS. 
XXIV.— PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  SPECIALIZED  AND 

CORRELATED  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

XXV.— STUDENT  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  PROGRESSIVE 
AND  CORRELATED  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSI- 
TIES. 

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Special  Studie 


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Special  Studies. 


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PART  FIFTH. 

BETTER   SCHOOL  AND    COLLEGE   ORGANIZATION 
AND   CORRELATION. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

EDUCATIVE  CORRELATION  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  SCHOOL 
COURSES. 

Education  is  the  Science  of  Self-evolution. — Growth 
through  lawful  self-activity  is  the  central  idea  in  the 
science  of  education.  Teaching  is  the  art  of  pro- 
moting self-evolution.  Growth  through  guided  self- 
effort  is  the  central  idea  in  the  teaching  art.  In  the 
mental  economy  all  the  activities  of  a  self  supplement 
and  re-enforce  each  activity ;  there  is  perfect  unity  in 
the  mental  life.  In  the  educational  economy  the 
learner  assimilates  into  unity  his  acquisitions,  and  all 
studies  supplement  and  re-enforce  each  study.  The 
pupil  world  is  a  unit.  Schools  and  subjects  are  corre- 
lated into  organic  unity  to  facilitate  the  preparation 
of  pupils  for  complete  living. 

The  Organic  Unity  of  Schools  and  Courses  forms  an 
Educational  Highway. — Courses  of  study  present  the 
processes  of  self -evolution  in  terms  of  subject-matter ; 

201 


202  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

no  one  can  teach  a  grade  or  a  subject  intelligently 
without  a  grasp  of  its  organic  relations  to  the  whole. 
Correlation  of  the  schools,  the  colleges,  and  courses  of 
study  constitute  an  educational  highway  leading  up 
from  feeble  infancy  to  strong  manhood  ;  from  the 
nursery  to  all  fields  of  achievement.  The  central 
idea  in  its  construction  is  pupil  improvement.  Around 
this  vital  principle  we  seek  to  correlate  into  organic 
unity  our  schools  and  our  school  work.  The  aim  is 
to  make  the  most  of  the  individual  self  and  the  so- 
cial self  and  the  cosmic  self,  thus  enriching  human 
life.  Our  ideal  is  unceasing  educational  progress. 
"We  study  to  embody  in  the  educative  organism  the 
best  thought  and  the  most  helpful  experience  of  the 
race ;  we  strive  to  advance  from  the  good  to  the  bet- 
ter and  from  the  better  to  the  best. 

The  Parts  are  studied  in  View  of  the  Whole. — The 
physiologist  thinks  of  the  human  body  as  a  complex 
unit,  and  he  studies  each  organ  and  function  in  its  re- 
lations to  other  organs  and  functions  and  to  the  entire 
organism.  The  teacher  thinks  of  schools  and  school 
work  as  an  organic  unit,  and  he  studies  each  class  of 
schools  in  its  relations  to  other  classes  of  schools  and 
in  its  relation  to  the  whole  school  organism.  He 
studies  each  subject  in  its  relation  to  other  subjects 
and  to  the  entire  school  work. 

The  Intelligent  Teacher  learns  to  view  Human  Life 
as  a  Whole. — He  comes  to  think  of  the  world  as  a 
school  and  of  human  beings  as  learners.  In  the  home 
he  studies  the  budding  infant ;  in  the  kindergarten  he 
observes  the  happy  little  ones  playing  and  growing ; 
in  the  primary  he  watches  the  glad  children  playing, 


EDUCATIVE  CORRELATION  OF  SCHOOLS.      203 

working,  growing ;  in  the  intermediate  he  enjoys  the 
wild  activities  and  the  vigorous  explorations  of  boys 
and  girls ;  in  the  high  school  he  becomes  deeply  in- 
terested in  the  hopes  and  achievements  of  aspiring 
youths ;  in  the  college  he  lives  over  again  with  the 
gifted  students  the  struggles  of  other  years ;  in  the 
battle  of  life  he  watches  with  throbbing  heart  the  suc- 
cesses and  failures  of  his  pupils;  and  as  the  toilers 
one  by  one  pass  over  the  river,  he  seems  to  hear  the 
"  Well  done  "  of  the  Great  Teacher  as  he  welcomes 
them  to  the  celestial  university. 

Each  Class  of  Schools  stands  for  a  Stage  of  Growth. — 
The  world's  chief est  work  is  the  creation  and  conduct 
of  articulated  schools  adapted  to  the  well-defined 
stages  of  pupil  development.  We  study  infancy  and 
create  the  kindergarten  to  lead  the  infants  from  the 
home  to  the  school ;  we  study  childhood  and  create 
the  primary  to  lead  the  children  from  the  kindergar- 
ten to  the  intermediate ;  we  study  boyhood  and  girl- 
hood and  create  the  intermediate  to  lead  boys  and 
girls  from  the  primary  to  the  high  school ;  we  study 
youth  and  create  the  high  school  to  lead  the  youths 
from  the  intermediate  to  the  college ;  we  study  young 
manhood  and  young  womanhood  and  create  the  col- 
lege to  lead  young  men  and  women  from  the  high 
school  to  the  university.  Thus  the  ideal  educational 
highway  embodies  the  world's  educational  ideal.  Our 
various  classes  of  schools  and  the  school  work  are  cor- 
related into  organic  educational  unity. 

The  Course  of  Study,  in  terms  of  subjects,  repre- 
sents the  stages  of  pupil  growth.  The  educator  pro- 
foundly studies  pupil  environments.papil  nature,  and 


204:  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

pupil  growth  that  he  may  provide  for  pupil  needs. 
He  thinks  of  the  pupil  as  a  cosmic  being,  needing  to 
be  brought  in  educative  touch  with  the  universe.  He 
selects  from  boundless  fields  the  best.  He  adapts  the 
work  to  the  growing  pupil.  He  grades  the  educa- 
tional highway  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  pupils  at  all 
stages  of  development.  The  progressive  teacher  ear- 
nestly studies  the  correlation  of  schools  and  courses 
of  study.  The  kindergartner  as  well  as  the  college 
professor  thinks  of  the  schools  and  the  school  work 
as  an  organic  unit.  Each  as  an  intelligent  artist  does 
his  work  in  view  of  the  whole ;  each  phase  of  a  sub- 
ject is  taught  in  view  of  all  its  school  phases,  in  view 
of  the  entire  school  work,  in  view  of  life. 

Studies  are  selected  in  View  of  their  Educative  Values. 
— Education  prepares  the  pupil  for  complete  living. 
Those  subjects  which  do  most  to  develop  power  and  to 
fit  the  pupil  for  complete  living  have  the  highest  edu- 
cative values.  Studies  rich  in  incentives  and  calculated 
to  call  forth  vigorous  and  persistent  effort  have  high 
ed ucati ve  values.  Branches  of  study  tending  to  awaken 
the  widest  interests,  tending  to  best  develop  and  train 
the  activities  of  the  pupil,  tending  to  best  fit  the  pupil 
to  act  well  his  part  in  the  complex  civilization  in  which 
he  must  live,  are  counted  of  the  highest  educative  value. 
Expressed  in  terms  of  physiological  psychology,  a 
study  that  awakens,  strengthens,  and  develops  the 
highest  brain  areas,  such  as  are  connected  with  thought 
and  the  higher  emotions  and  the  moral  will,  is  of  the 
greatest  educative  value.  From  the  wide  field  of 
human  learning  studies  counted  of  highest  educative 
values  are  selected  and  organized  into  courses  of  study. 


EDUCATIVE  CORRELATION  OP  SCHOOLS.      205 

Co-ordinate  Study  Groups. — The  grouping  of  the 
school  studies  is  an  important  educational  device  made 
necessary  by  the  startling  multiplication  of  branches 
claiming  a  place  in  the  school  course.  Two  schemes 
for  grouping  the  school  studies  are  here  outlined — the 
philosophic  grouping  by  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  and  the 
practical  grouping  by  the  author.  The  educational 
world  accepts  the  scheme  of  Dr.  Harris  as  the  true 
basis  of  all  courses  of  study. 

THE  FIVE  NECESSARY  CO-ORDINATE  GROUPS  OF  STUDIES. 

"  The  studies  of  the  school  fall  naturally  into  five  co-ordinate 
groups,  thus  permitting  a  choice  within  each  group  as  to  the 
arrangement  of  its  several  topics.  These  five  co-ordinate  groups 
are :  First,  mathematics  and  physics ;  second,  biology,  as  includ- 
ing chiefly  the  plant  and  the  animal ;  third,  literature  and  art,  in- 
cluding chiefly  the  study  of  literary  works  of  art ;  fourth,  gram- 
mar and  the  technical  and  scientific  study  of  language,  leading  to 
such  branches  as  logic  and  psychology;  fifth,  history  and  the 
study  of  sociological,  political,  and  social  institutions.  Each  one 
of  these  groups  should  be  represented  in  the  curriculum  at  all 
times  by  some  topic  suited  to  the  age  and  previous  training  of  the 
pupil.  This  is  demanded  by  the  two  kinds  of  correlation:  (1) 
Symmetrical  Whole  of  Studies  in  the  World  of  Human  Learning, 
and  (2)  The  Psychological  Symmetry,  or  the  Whole  Mind. 

"  The  first  stage  of  school  education  is  education  for  culture 
and  education  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  command  of  the  con- 
ventionalities of  intelligence.  These  conventionalities  are  such 
arts  as  reading  and  writing  and  the  use  of  figures,  technicalities 
of  maps,  dictionaries,  the  art  of  drawing,  and  all  of  those  semi- 
mechanical  facilities  which  enable  the  child  to  get  access  to  the 
intellectual  conquests  of  the  race.  Later  on  in  the  school  course, 
when  the  pupil  passes  out  of  his  elementary  studies,  which  par- 
take more  of  the  nature  of  art  than  of  science,  he  arrives  in  the 
secondary  school  and  the  college  to  the  study  of  science  and  the 
technique  necessary  for  its  preservation  and  communication.  All 
these  things  belong  to  the  first  stage  of  school  instruction  whose 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

aim  is  culture.  Post-graduate  work  and  the  work  of  professional 
schools  has  not  the  aim  of  culture  so  much  as  the  aim  of  fitting 
the  person  for  a  special  vocation.  It  is  in  the  first  stage,  the 
schools  for  culture,  that  these  five  co-ordinate  branches  should  be 
represented  in  a  symmetrical  manner.  It  is  not  to  be  thought 
that  a  professional  school  or  a  course  of  university  study  should 
be  symmetrical.  From  the  primary  school  on  through  the ' 
academic  course  of  the  college  there  should  be  symmetry  and  five 
co-ordinate  groups  of  studies  represented  at  each  part  of  the 
course ;  at  least  in  each  year,  although  perhaps  not  throughout 
each  part  of  the  year. 

"  I.  Inorganic  Nature. — Commencing  with  the  outlook  of  the 
child  upon  the  world  of  Nature,  it  has  been  found  that  arithmetic, 
or  mathematical  study,  furnishes  the  first  scientific  key  to  the  ex- 
istence of  bodies  and  their  various  motions.  Mathematics  in  its 
pure  form,  as  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and  the  application 
of  the  analytical  method,  as  well  as  mathematics  in  its  applied 
form  to  matter  and  force,  or  statics  and  dynamics,  furnishes  us 
the  peculiar  study  that  gives  to  us,  whether  as  children  or  as  men, 
the  command  of  Nature  in  this  aspect.  It  is  all  quantitative. 
Mathematics  furnishes  the  instrument,  the  tool  of  thought,  which 
gives  us  power  in  this  realm. 

"  II.  Organic  Nature. — The  second  group  includes  whatever  is 
organic  in  Nature,  especially  studies  relating  to  the  plant  and  the 
animal,  the  growth  of  material  for  food  and  clothing,  and  in  a  large 
measure  the  means  of  transportation  and  culture.  This  study  of 
the  organic  phase  of  Nature  forms  a  great  portion  of  the  branch 
of  study  known  as  geography  in  the  elementary  school.  These 
two  phases  of  Nature,  the  inorganic  and  the  organic,  exhaust  the 
entire  field.  Hence  a  quantitative  study,  conducted  in  pure  and 
applied  mathematics,  and  biology,  or  the  study  of  life  in  its 
manifestations,  cover  Nature. 

"  III.  Literature. — The  first  study  relating  to  human  nature  as 
contrasted  with  mere  organic  and  inorganic  Nature  is  literature. 
Literature,  as  the  fifth  highest  of  the  fine  arts,  reveals  human  na- 
ture in  its  intrinsic  form.  It  may  be  said  in  general  that  a  literary 
work  of  art,  a  poem,  whether  lyric,  dramatic,  or  epic,  or  a  prose 
work  of  art,  such  as  a  novel  or  a  drama,  reveals  human  nature  in 
its  height  and  depth.  It  shows  the  growth  of  a  feeling  or  senti- 
ment first  into  a  conviction  and  then  into  a  deed ;  feelings, 


EDUCATIVE  CORRELATION  OF  SCHOOLS.      207 

thoughts,  and  deeds  are  thus  systematically  unfolded  by  a  literary 
work  of  art  in  such  a  way  as  to  explain  a  complete  genesis  of 
human  action.  Moreover,  in  a  literary  work  of  art  there  is  a 
revelation  of  man  as  a  member  of  social  institutions. 

"  IV.  Language. — Our  next  co-ordinate  branch  includes  gram- 
mar and  language,  and  studies  allied  to  it,  such  as  logic  and  psy- 
chology. In  the  elementary  school  we  have  simply  grammar. 
Grammar  treats  of  the  structure  of  language.  There  is  a  me- 
chanical side  to  it  in  orthography  and  a  technical  side  to  it  in 
each  of  its  phases.  But  one  can  not  call  grammar  in  any  peculiar 
sense  a  formal  study  any  more  than  he  can  apply  the  same  epithet 
to  natural  science  of  any  kind.  The  method  of  grammar  leads  to 
wonderful  insight  into  the  nature  of  reason  itself.  It  is  this 
insight  which  it  gives  us  into  our  methods  of  thinking  and  of 
uttering  our  thoughts  that  furnishes  the  justification  for  grammar 
as  one  of  the  leading  studies  in  the  curriculum.  Its  use  in  teach- 
ing correct  speaking  and  writing  is  always  secondary. 

"V.  History. — There  is  a  fifth  co-ordinate  group  of  studies, 
namely,  that  of  history.  History  looks  to  the  formation  of  the 
state  as  the  chief  of  human  institutions.  The  development  of 
states ;  the  collisions  of  individuals  with  the  state ;  the  collisions 
of  the  states  with  one  another — these  form  the  topics  of  history. 
The  method  of  history  keeps  its  gaze  fixed  upon  the  development 
of  the  social  whole  and  the  progress  which  it  makes  in  realiz- 
ing within  its  citizens  the  freedom  of  the  whole.  This  method,  it 
is  evident  enough,  is  different  from  the  literary ;  different  from 
the  grammatical ;  different  also  from  the  biological  and  the 
mathematical  methods.  In  history  we  see  how  the  little  selves,  or 
individuals,  unite  to  form  the  big  self,  or  the  nation. 

"  The  studies  of  the  school  fall  naturally  into  these  five  co-ordi- 
nate groups.  No  one  of  these  groups  can  be  taken  as  a  substitute 
for  any  other,  and  no  one  of  these  groups  can  be  spared  from  a 
symmetrical  whole  without  distorting  the  pupil's  view  of  the 
world."— W.  T.  HARRIS. 


THE  FIVE  PRACTICAL  CO-ORDINATE  STUDY  GROUPS. 

School  courses  are  products  of  experience.     The- 
ory determines  the  what,  but  experience  determines 


208  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

the  how.  Theory  demonstrates  the  necessity  for 
the  live  co-ordinate  groups  of  studies,  but  experi- 
ence arranges  the  studies  in  five  co-ordinate  groups 
for  practical  school  work.  First  of  all,  we  have  the 
conduct  group  of  studies;  second,  the  language-liter- 
ature group ;  third,  the  science  group ;  fourth,  the 
mathematics  group ;  and  fifth,  the  art  group.  The 
school  work  seems  to  naturally  fall  into  these  groups. 
The  practical  grouping  aims  to  embody  all  the  re- 
quirements of  the  philosophical  grouping,  and  it  is 
hoped  that  it  will  prove  to  be  a  reasonable  basis  for 
helpful  correlation  and  concentration  in  school  and 

college  work. 

"  1.  Conduct  lessons,   elementary    ethics, 


I.  The  Conduct 

Group  of  Studies. 

[Read  Chapter  XXVI.] 


ethics. 

2.  Biographical  history,  comparative  his- 

tory, philosophic  history. 

3.  Oral  civics,  elementary  civics,  civics. 

4.  Mind  lessons,  elementary  psychology, 

philosophy. 


Conduct  is  the  Greatest  Thing  in  Education. — School 
principals  and  college  presidents  are  specialists  in  con- 
duct culture,  and  hence  are  charged  with  the  conduct 
group  of  studies.  In  the  elementary  school,  conduct 
lessons  include  school  conduct,  how  to  study,  and  spe- 
cial lessons  in  proper  and  right  conduct.  In  the  high 
school,  practical  ethics  is  so  presented  as  to  make  for 
good  conduct.  In  the  college,  advanced  ethics  is  so 
studied  as  to  promote  character  growth.  History,  re- 
enforced  by  literature,  is  the  great  conduct  study. 
Civics  helps  to  prepare  for  good  citizenship.  Mind 
lessons  lead  pupils  to  understand  themselves,  and  psy- 
chology leads  on  to  logic  and  philosophy.  Religion 
unobtrusively,  in  the  opening  exercises  and  in  the  life 


EDUCATIVE  CORRELATION   OF  SCHOOLS.      209 

of  the  teacher,  leads  pupils  up  to  the  ideal  conduct  as 
embodied  in  the  life  of  Jesus.  Wisely  taught,  all  the 
school  studies  make  for  character  as  well  as  for  schol- 
arship ;  but  there  seems  to  be  special  fitness  in  group- 
ing the  above-named  studies  as  conduct  studies. 

11.  Reading,  expression. 
2.  English  language  and  liter- 
ature. 
3.  Foreign  languages  and  liter- 
atures. 

Literature  stands  for  human  nature  at  its  best. 
The  language-literature  studies  are  accorded  the  sec- 
ond place  in  the  educative  scheme,  and  are  given  in 
school  and  college  programmes  double  the  time  of 
the  other  study  groups.  Literature  and  language  are 
inseparable  in  school  work.  From  the  kindergarten 
to  the  university,  the  new  education  teaches  language 
in  teaching  literature,  and  teaches  literature  in  teach- 
ing language.  Literature  most  of  all  supplements 
and  re-enforces  the  conduct  studies.  Language  studies 
supplement  all  other  studies. 

(  I.  Geography,  geology. 
III.  The  Science  Group  of  Studies.   I  2.  Biology. 

[Read  Chapter  XXVIII.]  ]   3.  Physics,  chemistry. 

[  4.  Astronomy. 

The  science  studies  re-enforced  by  mathematics 
lead  to  the  mastery  of  our  environments.  In  the 
science  group  of  studies  are  included  both  organic  and 
inorganic  Nature  studies.  The  grounds  for  this  in- 
clusion are  strictly  practical.  The  learner  at  all  stages 
of  work  keeps  in  touch  with  both  organic  and  inor- 
ganic Nature.  Then,  in  most  schools  the  science 

15 


210  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

teacher  is  charged  with  all  the  science  work.  Science 
is  now  conceded  a  place  side  by  side  with  literature 
and  mathematics  in  our  educational  work.  The  im- 
mense educative  and  practical  value  of  the  science 
studies  is  now  unquestioned.  The  tendency  is  to 
give  undue  prominence  to  this  group  of  studies,  but 
thoughtful  educators  study  proportion  and  fitness. 

{1.  Arithmetic,  algebra,  calculus. 
2.  Concrete  geometry,  geometry. 
3.  Oral  trigonometry,  trigonometry. 
4.  Oral  bookkeeping,  applied  mathe- 
matics. 

Form  and  number  enter  into  all  thinking.  Arith- 
metic is  the  first  tool  of  thought,  the  first  step  in  the 
conquest  of  Nature.  Geometry  stands  for  form,  and 
is  counted  the  central  study  in  the  group.  From  the 
kindergarten  to  the  university  arithmetic  and  geome- 
try permeate  school  work.  "We  think  of  mathematics 
as  including  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  trigonome- 
try, and  applied  mathematics.  Logically,  the  inor- 
ganic sciences  are  grouped  with  mathematics.  So 
great  is  the  educative  and  practical  value  of  these 
studies  that  mathematics  is  everywhere  placed  side  by 
side  with  literature  and  science  in  our  school  work. 

C  1.  Physical  culture. 

V.  The  Art  Group  of  Studies.  I  2.  Writing,  drawing. 
[Read  Chapter  XXX.]  j   3.  Vocal  music. 

[  4.  Manual  training. 

The  art  studies  stand  for  the  useful  and  the  beau- 
tiful. The  art  studies  re-enforce  the  other  study 
groups.  Physical  culture  is  the  art  of  developing 
physical  vigour.  Drawing  is  the  central  school  art. 
At  every  step,  in  nearly  all  subjects,  the  hand  and  the 


EDUCATIVE  CORRELATION  OF  SCHOOLS.      211 

eye  are  made  to  re-enforce  thought.  Yocal  music  in 
our  school  work  is  now  ranked  with  arithmetic  and 
geography.  Its  educative  value  is  conceded.  Man- 
ual training,  in  some  form,  will  be  given  a  place  in 
the  schools  of  the  future.  The  arts  mentioned  are  the 
school  arts.  The  higher  aesthetic  and  practical  arts 
belong  in  colleges  and  universities  and  art  schools. 

The  Five  Practical  Study  Groups  represent  Human 
Learning. — From  the  standpoint  of  actual  school  work 
the  grouping  seems  to  be  natural,  logical,  and  prac- 
tical ;  it  accords  substantially  with  the  results  of  hu- 
man experience  as  embodied  in  the  work  of  our 
schools  and  colleges.  The  five  groups  include  all  de- 
partments of  human  learning,  and  seem  to  furnish  a 
practical  basis  for  the  natural  and  helpful  correlation 
of  studies  in  school  work.  Moreover,  the  five  prac- 
tical study  groups  seem  to  be  the  true  basis  for  organ- 
izing school  faculties,  for  planning  concentration  in 
teaching,  and  for  arranging  school  programmes. 

ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  AND  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

Elementary  schools  include  all  schools  between  the 
kindergarten  and  the  high  school.  The  eight  years 
from  the  sixth  to  the  fourteenth  year  constitute  the 
elementary  school  period.  We  class  as  elementary 
schools  our  public  and  private  rural  schools,  primary 
schools,  and  intermediate  schools.  We  think  of  the 
elementary  course  of  study  as  extending  through  the 
eight  years  of  elementary  school  life. 

Report  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen  on  the  Correla- 
tion of  Studies  in  Elementary  Schools.* — This  is  counted 

*  Published  by  American  Book  Company. 


212  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


the  most  helpful  of  all  our  educational  classics,  and  ia 
adopted  and  submitted  as  a  part  of  this  chapter. 
Please  read  considerately  the  entire  report  before  tak- 
ing up  the  following  items. 

Programme  Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  Schools. 


BKANCHES 

1st  year 

2d  year 

3d  year 

4th  year 

5th  year 

6th  year 

7th  year 

8th  year 

Reading  

10  lessons  a  week 

5  lessons  a  week 

Writing  

10  lessons  a  week 

5  lessons  a  week 

3  lessons  a  week 

Spelling  lists  _ 

4  lessons  a  week 

English 
Grammar 

Oral,  with  composition  lessons 

5  lessons  a  week  with 
text-book 

Latin 

5  lessons 

Arithmetic  

Oral,  60  minutes 
a  week 

5  lessons  a  week  with  text-^ook 

Al    bra 

5  lessons  a  week 

_ 
Geography  

Oral,  60  minutes  a  week     *5  lessons  a  week  with  text-l>ook 

3  lessons  a  week 

Natural  Science 
-t-  Hygiene 

Sixty  minutes  a  week 

U.  S.  History— 

5  lessons  a 
week 

U.  S.  Constitu- 
tion 

*5 

les. 

General 
History 

Oral,  60  minutes:  a  week 

Physical 
Culture 

Sixty  minutes  a  week 

Vocal  Music  — 

Sixty  minutes  a  week 
divided  into  4  lessons 

Drawing  

Sixty  minutes  a  week 

Manual  Train, 
or  Sewing  -)- 
Cookery 

One-half  day  each 

No.  of  Lessons 

20+7 
daily 
exer. 

20+7 
daily 
exer. 

20+5 
daily 
exer. 

24+5 
daily 
exer. 

27+5 
daily 
exer. 

27+6 
daily 
exer. 

23+6 
daily 
exer. 

23+6 
daily 

Total  Hours  of 
Recitations 

12 

12 

ux 

13 

W 

»X 

17* 

m 

Length  of 
Recitations  . 

15  min. 

15  min. 

20  min. 

20  min. 

25  min. 

25  min. 

30  min. 

30  min. 

*Begins  in  second  lialf  year 


EDUCATIVE  CORRELATION  OF  SCHOOLS.      213 


SOME  CONDENSED  EXPLANATIONS. 

1.  Elementary  Period, — All  schools  between  the  kindergarten 
and  the  high  school  are  elementary  schools.     Pupils  are  from  six 
to  fourteen  years  of  age.    The  time  (eight  years)  now  devoted  to 
elementary-school  work  should  not  be  reduced. 

2.  Eecitation  Periods. — Recitations  are  class  exercises  conducted 
by  the  teacher.    As  far  as  possible,  study  periods  and  recitation 
periods  should  alternate.     It  is  recommended  that  recitation  pe- 
riods be  fifteen  minutes  during  the  first  and  second  years,  twenty 
minutes  during  the  third  and  fourth  years,  twenty-five  minutes 
during  the  fifth  and  sixth  years,  and  thirty  minutes  during  the 
seventh  and  eighth  years. 

3.  Eecitation  Time. — The  programme  shows  twenty-seven  week- 
ly recitation  periods  during  the  first  and  second  years,  twenty-five 
during  the  third  year,  twenty-nine  during  the  fourth  year,  twenty- 
seven  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  years,  and  twenty-three  during 
the  seventh  and  eighth  years.     The  primary  pupils  give  to  recita- 
tions daily  from  two  and  one  third  to  two  and  two  thirds  hours ; 
the  intermediate  pupils,  from  three  and  one  fourth  to  three  and 
three  fourths  hours. 

4.  Promotions. — Promotions  should  be  made  when  the  pupils 
complete  the  work  of  the  class,  and  also  when  a  pupil  is  prepared 
to  work  more  profitably  with  a  higher  class.     Keeping  pupils 
marking  time  produces  demoralization.     The  intervals  between 
the  classes  must  depend  on  the  school.     In  graded  schools  it  is 
now  half  a  year  or  less,  but  in  rural  schools  the  intervals  are 
necessarily  much  greater. 

5.  Few  Subjects. — The  prolonged  study  of  a  few  subjects  is  in- 
comparably better  than  the  brief  study  of  many  subjects.     Our 
schools  are  at  their  best  when  they  lead  the  pupils  to  develop 
power  through  the  mastery  of  the  best  studies. 

6.  Correlation  of  Studies.— By  this  is  meant— (1)  The  arrange- 
ment of  topics  in  proper  sequence  in  the  course  of  study,  in  such 
a  manner  that  each  branch  develops  in  an  order  suited  to  the 
natural  and  easy  progress  of  the  child,  and  so  that  each  step  is 
taken  at  the  proper  time  to  help  his  advance  to  the  next  step  in 
the  same  branch,  or  to  the  next  steps  in  other  related  branches  of 
the  course  of  study.    (2)  The  adjustment  of  the  branches  of  study 


214  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

in  such  a  manner  that  the  whole  course  at  any  given  time  repre- 
sents all  the  great  divisions  of  human  learning,  as  far  as  is  possi- 
ble at  the  stage  of  maturity  at  which  the  pupil  has  arrived,  and 
that  each  allied  group  of  studies  is  represented  by  some  one  of  its 
branches  best  adapted  for  the  epoch  in  question.  (3)  The  selec- 
tion and  arrangement  of  the  branches  and  topics  within  each 
branch,  considered  psychologically,  with  a  view  to  afford  the  best 
exercise  of  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  and  to  secure  the  unfolding 
of  those  faculties  in  their  natural  order,  so  that  no  one  faculty  is 
so  overcultivated  or  so  neglected  as  to  produce  abnormal  or  one- 
sided mental  development.  (4)  The  selection  and  arrangement  in 
orderly  sequence  of  such  objects  of  study  as  shall  give  the  child 
an  insight  into  the  world  that  he  lives  in,  and  a  command  over  its 
resources  such  as  is  obtained  by  a  helpful  co-operation  with  one's 
fellows. — From  Report  of  Committee  of  Fifteen. 

SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  AND  COURSES  OF  STUDY. 

Schools  leading  from  the  elementary  school  up  to 
the  college  are  classed  as  secondary  schools.  These 
include  public  high  schools,  academies,  seminaries, 
private  high  schools,  and  preparatory  schools.  The 
high-school  period  is  four  years,  the  pupils  entering 
at  about  the  age  of  fourteen  and  graduating  at  about 
the  age  of  eighteen. 

Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten.* — This  report  on 
the  work  of  secondary  schools  as  suggestive  and  as  a 
working  basis  is  submitted  as  a  part  of  this  chapter. 
For  our  larger  high  schools  the  committee  arranged 
four  parallel  courses  of  study.  A  few  condensed  ex- 
planations seem  necessary. 

\.  Purpose  of  High  Schools. — The  main  function 
of  secondary  schools  is  to  prepare  pupils  for  the  duties 
of  life.  They  do  not  exist  to  prepare  pupils  for  col- 

*  Published  by  American  Book  Company. 


EDUCATIVE  CORRELATION   OF  SCHOOLS.      215 


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216  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

lege.     The  work  for  the  most  part  is  the  same  for  all 
pupils. 

2.  The  Pour  Parallel  Courses. — These  are  sub- 
stantially the  same,  except  as  to  language  and  liter- 
ature.    The  classical  course  necessarily  reduces  the 
work  in  English  and  in  science  ;  the  other  courses  are 
nearly  identical,  with  the  exception  of  foreign   lan- 
guages.    In  our  smaller  high  schools  only  one  course 
can  be   sustained,  but   provisions  may  be  made  for 
some  options. 

3.  Recitation  Periods. — Each  course  is  limited  to 
twenty  recitation  periods  each  week.     These  periods 
are  usually  forty  minutes  in  length.     The  plan  gives 
the  pupil  daily  three  prepared  lessons  and  two  conver- 
sational or  drill  lessons. 

4.  Laboratory  Work  and  Manual   Training. — 
Pupils  devote  two  hours  on  Saturdays  to  practical 
work.     This  includes  laboratory  work,  manual  train- 
ing, and  outdoor  instruction  in  science. 

5.  Correlation. — The  aim  is  to  correlate  the  work 
of  elementary  schools,    secondary    schools,  and    col- 
leges.    The  plan  is  to  have  the  elementary  certificate 
pass  the  pupil  into  the  high  school,  and  to  have  the 
high-school  diploma  pass  the  pupil  into  the  college. 
The  correlation  of   subjects  was   not  given  specific 
attention. 

6.  Omissions. — The  committee  limited  their  work 
to  leading  subjects.     It  is  supposed  that  time  will  be 
found  for  drawing,  music,  physical  culture,  manual 
training,  elementary  psychology,  and  practical  ethics. 


EDUCATIVE  CORRELATION   OF  SCHOOLS.      217 


COLLEGES  AND  COLLEGE  COURSES. 

The  college  stands  for  the  highest  school  culture. 
The  college  period,  from  about  the  eighteenth  to 
about  the  twenty-second  year,  is  termed  young  man- 
hood  and  young  womanhood.  Students  are  now  ca- 
pable of  greater  things.  The  school  and  college  courses 
are  so  correlated  that  the  high-school  graduate  will 
pass  into  the  college  and  move  on  with  the  work 
without  a  break.  The  studies  are  the  same  as  in  the 
elementary  and  secondary  schools,  but  the  phases  and 
methods  are  widely  different.  In  the  general  course 
of  study  on  page  300  the  outline  of  the  college  course 
is  sufficient  to  indicate  the  work.  Let  us  now  turn 
back  to  that  outline,  and  in  imagination  go  with  the 
pupils  as  they  advance  in  each  study.  We  enjoy  the 
conduct  lessons  of  the  elementary  school,  the  practical 
ethics  of  the  high  school,  and  the  ethical  philosophy 
of  the  college.  As  we  thus  go  with  the  pupils  in  the 
several  studies  through  the  elementary  school,  through 
the  high  school,  and  through  the  college,  we  gain  in- 
sight into  the  unity  of  the  school  and  college  work, 
and  learn  to  think  of  it  as  a  whole.  We  can  now  take 
up  each  group  of  schools  and  intelligently  study  its 
work  in  view  of  the  general  course  of  study.  Such 
study  will  fit  us  as  nothing  else  can  to  do  well  our  re- 
spective parts  in  educating  the  race. 


218  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    EFFICIENT    RURAL 
SCHOOLS. 

MORE  than  half  of  our  pupils  get  their  entire  edu- 
cation in  our  country  schools.  A  majority  of  our 
leaders  in  all  fields  of  high  endeavour  get  their  start 
in  our  rural  schools.  These  facts  indicate  the  tre- 
mendous importance  of  making  these  schools  as  effi- 
cient as  possible.  Inefficiency,  as  a  rule,  still  char- 
acterizes the  management  of  our  rural  schools. 

The  Story  of  the  Country  School  is  inexpressibly 
Pathetic. — History  is  the  story  of  human  progress, 
but  hitherto  our  rural  schools  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
have  made  history.  Even  through  the  most  marvellous 
decades  of  educational  advancement  our  rural  schools 
have  remained  comparatively  stationary.  As  the  cen- 
tury closes,  we  grieve  to  say  it,  our  country  schools 
are  nowhere  satisfactory.  Everywhere  our  rural 
youths  are  systematically  dwarfed.  But  light  is 
breaking.  County  supervision  is  very  helpful.  The 
movements  to  group  our  rural  schools  and  give  them 
district  supervision  promises  great  things.  In  densely 
populated  regions,  transporting  pupils  at  public  ex- 
pense and  thus  forming  graded  central  schools  is 
working  great  improvements.  The  uplifting  of  our 
rural  schools  is  becoming  a  leading  educational  move- 
ment of  our  times. 

Rural  Schools  may  be  made  Efficient. — The  pos- 
sibility of  making  our  country  schools  efficient  and 


EFFICIENT  RURAL  SCHOOLS.  219 

progressive  is  no  longer  doubted.  The  stupendous 
difficulties  are  admitted,  but  wise  organization  and 
skilful  management  may  surmount  all  hindrances. 
The  statesman  and  the  philanthropist  study  to  im- 
prove our  country  schools  as  the  best  means  of  check- 
ing the  alarming  tendency  to  overcrowd  our  cities. 
The  educator  co-operates  in  all  movements  to  improve 
our  rural  schools,  because  he  considers  that  we  thus 
do  most  to  elevate  the  race. 

Country  Schools  are  necessarily  Sui  Generis. — Our 
rural  schools  to  be  efficient  must  be  unique  in  organi- 
zation, in  management,  and  in  methods.  The  en- 
vironments demand  the  creation  of  a  country-school 
system  adapted  to  the  conditions.  After  long  years 
of  study,  observation,  experiment,  and  consultation, 
the  following  plan  is  submitted.  It  is  certainly  in- 
tensely practical.  It  seems  to  embrace  the  conditions 
of  constant  progress.  It  is  the  faith  of  the  author 
that  our  rural  schools  can  and  will  be  made  efficient. 

We  count  Rural  Schools  as  Ungraded  Schools.— The 
typical  country  school  is  ungraded.  It  has  one  teach- 
er, and  has  pupils  at  all  stages  of  elementary  advance- 
ment. The  ungraded  schools  are  the  least  economical 
and  the  least  efficient  of  all  schools,  but  such  schools 
are  a  necessity.  Our  study  is  to  make  the  most  of 
these  schools.  Whenever  and  wherever  possible  we 
plan  to  transform  the  ungraded  into  the  partly  graded 
school  with  two  or  more  teachers.  These  partly  grad- 
ed schools,  in  small  villages  and  in  densely  populated 
neighbourhoods,  are  a  decided  educational  advance. 
Wherever  possible,  we  plan  to  transform  the  partially 
graded  into  the  graded  school  with  a  teacher  for  each 


220  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

grade.  The  rural  central  high  school  may  be  counted 
as  a  country  school.  The  high  school  is  now  a  part 
of  the  common-school  system,  and  must  be  made  easily 
accessible  to  all  our  youths.  The  central  high  school 
can  at  the  least  do  well  the  work  of  the  first  and  second 
high-school  years,  arid  can  thus  do  incalculable  good. 

COUNTRY  SCHOOL  GROUNDS  AND  SCHOOLHOUSES. 

These  must  be  adapted  to  the  conditions.  In  other 
chapters  we  have  studied  school  environments  and 
school  grounds  and  schoolhouses  in  general.  Here 
we  study  these  things  as  affecting  rural  schools. 

1.  The  Location  should  be   Central,  Beautiful, 
Hygienic.     In  the  country  these  are  important  con- 
siderations.    The   location  should   be  beautiful,  and 
this  requirement  may  move  the  school  a  little  from  a 
central  position.     The  location  must  be  healthy,  and 
hygienic  environments  outrank  other  considerations. 

2.  Rural  School  Grounds  should  he  Commodious. 
Each  rural  school  should  have  from  two  to  five  acres 
consecrated  to  pupil  culture.     These  grounds  must  be 
made  educative.     The  natural  beauty  must  be  supple- 
mented by  art,  so  as  to  cultivate  taste  and  react  on  the 
home.     The  playgrounds  must  be  so  arranged  as  to 
encourage  vigorous  plays.     The  geography  grounds 
must  present  the  divisions  of  land  and  water.     The 
biological  grounds  must  be  made  helpful  in  Nature 
study.     The  rural  school  grounds  should  be  the  most 
delightful  of  all  places  in  the  community. 

3.  The  Ideal  Country  Schoolhouse  is  adapted  to 
the  Country  School.     We  create  our  ideal  rural  school 
and  we  build  around  it  our  ideal  country  schoolhouse. 


EFFICIENT  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 


221 


It  is  commodious,  for  the  country  pupils  must  not  be 
crowded.  It  is  seated  with  single  adjustable  desks,  for 
country  pupils  deserve  the  best.  It  is  heated  by  a 
ventilating  stove  and  a  small  open  fireplace  situated  in 
opposite  corners.  Almost  perfect  ventilation  is  se- 
cured by  the  large  flues,  by  the  skilful  management 
of  the  windows,  and  by  having  a  recess  each  hour. 
The  two  doors  and  the  convenient  cloak  rooms  make 
entrance  and  exit  easy.  Storm  doors  open  into  closed 
walks  leading  to  the  closets,  and  the  pupils  visit  the 
closets  at  will.  Our  ideal  country  schoolhouse  is  a 
thing  of  beauty,  and  it  is  every  way  adapted  to  the 
ungraded  school  work. 

COUNTRY  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 

Each  township  shall  constitute  a  school  district, 
and  the  teacher  of  the  central  school  shall  be  princi- 
pal of  all  the  schools  in  the  district.  This  sentence, 
enacted  into  law  and  embodied  in  practice,  will  revo- 
lutionize our  rural  school 
work.  It  will  group  all 
schools,  and  will  give  the 
schools  of  a  district  organic 
unity  and  skilled  manage- 
ment. 

1.  Grouping  Rural 
Schools  into  Organic  Unity 
is  Vital.  The  angels  could 
not  make  our  country 
schools  efficient  on  any  other  plan.  In  most  States 
the  municipal  township  is  wisely  made  the  school  dis- 
trict. The  number  of  schools  in  a  district  is  imma- 


School 

D 

No.  5 

School 

D 

No.  4 

School 

D 

No.  3 

School 

D 

No.  6 

School 

d 

No.l 

School 

D 

No.  2 

School 

P 

•No.  7 

School 

No.  8 

School 

D 

No.  9 

222  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

terial,  but  for  convenience  it  is  often  best  to  divide  a 
township  into  two  or  even  three  districts,  and  some- 
times it  is  best  to  put  two  townships  in  one  district. 
A  school  group  should  be  compact,  and  the  central 
school  should  be  easy  of  access  from  all  parts  of  the 
district.  School  No.  1  is  the  central  school.  The 
number  of  schools  in  a  district,  within  reasonable 
limits,  does  not  affect  the  management. 

2.  The  District  School  Board  must  he  Perpetual. 
The  legal  voters  will  elect  three  competent  citizens  to 
serve  one,  two,  and  three  years  as  members  of  the 
school  boaVd.     One  member  of  the  board  will  retire, 
and  one  new  member  will  be  elected  each  year.    Thus 
a  perpetual  school  board  is  secured.     The  teacher  of 
the  central  school  will  be  ex-officio  secretary  of  the 
board.     In  school  affairs,  as  in  everything  else,  our 
people  initiate  all  movements  and  keep  the  manage- 
ment of  affairs  in  their   own   hands.     The  Govern- 
ment helps  the  people  to  help  themselves.     The  prin- 
cipal  nominates  and  the  board  elects  the  teachers. 
With  the  approval  of  the  county  and  the  State  super- 
intendent, the  board  may  divide  the  schools  of  a  dis- 
trict into  two  or  three  convenient  groups,  each  group 
having  a  central  school  and  a  principal. 

3.  The  Teacher  of  the  Central  School  is  the  Prin- 
cipal of  'all  the  Schools  in  the  Group.     Only  trained 
and  experienced  teachers  are  eligible  to  this  position. 
The  principal  is  the  vital  element  in  the  rural  school 
organization.     The  tenure  of  office  for  principal  and 
tried   assistants   is  during  efficiency.     The  principal 
directs  the  course  of  study  and  is  the  inspiration  of 
the  school  work  of  the  district.     lie  works  with  the 


EFFICIENT  RURAL  SCHOOLS.  223 

county  superintendent  as  city  principals  work  with 
the  city  superintendent.  He  works  with  the  school 
board  to  secure  and  keep  a  good  teacher  in  each 
school.  On  alternate  Saturdays  the  principal  arranges 
to  visit  such  schools  as  most  need  his  help,  and  on 
alternate  Saturdays  he  conducts  the  meetings  of  the 
teachers. 

4.  Teachers  spend  Alternate  Saturdays  in  Profes- 
sional Work.     They  meet  at  the  central  school  and 
the  principal   conducts  the  exercises.     One  hour  is 
spent  in   practical   school  management,  and  all  the 
teachers   plan   to   help   each  teacher.     One  hour  is 
spent  on  methods.     The  time  is  devoted  to  the  best 
teaching  of  a  single  branch ;  each  teacher  contributes 
something.     One  hour  is  devoted  to  the  professional 
study  in  hand ;  a  helpful  book  is  studied  and  dis- 
cussed.    One  hour  at  alternate  meetings  is  given  to 
helpful  work  by  the  county  superintendent.     On  the 
last  Saturday  of  the  school  month  an  hour  is  spent 
with  the  school  board.     The  principal  reads  the  con- 
solidated report  for  the  month,  and  each  teacher  re- 
ceives his  salary  in  cash,  not  in  promises.     The  board 
and  the  teachers  consult  about  the  needs  of  the  schools 
and  the  county  superintendent  makes  suggestions. 

5.  Each  School  has  its  Director.     The  board  ap- 
points an  interested  and  competent  citizen  to  have 
charge  of  the  school  property,  to  make  the  improve- 
ments ordered,  to  supply  fuel,  and  to  co-operate  with 
the  teacher.     The  director  holds  his  position  during 
the  pleasure  of  the  board. 

6.  The  Central  School  develops  into  the  District 
High  School.     Usually  but  two  years  of  high-school 


224  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

work  is  advisable.  The  principal  takes  charge  of  the 
high  school,  and  an  assistant  teacher  takes  charge  of 
the  elementary  work.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
to  have  these  rural  high  schools  accessible  to  all  youths 
in  the  district  who  complete  the  elementary  course  of 
study. 

7.  The  Villages  are  the  Natural  Centers.     Sepa- 
rate school  boards  for  the  village  school  and  for  the 
surrounding  rural  schools  are  uneconomic  and  unedu- 
cational.     In  all  affairs — school,  church,  and  state — it 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  get  the  town  and  coun- 
try people  to  work  together.     Whenever  possible  the 
village  should  be  designated  as  the  central  school.     No 
reasonable  effort  should  be  spared  to  break  down  and 
keep  down  antagonism.     To  this  end  the  union  of  the 
schools  will  help  most. 

8.  Flexibility  must  characterize  the  Rural  School 
Organization.     It  must  be  easily  adjustable  to  the  con- 
ditions in  all  sections  of  the  country.     The  above  plan 
is  in  the  highest  degree  flexible.     Everywhere  the 
people  will  group  their  schools  and  elect  their  school 
boards.     Each  school  board  will  elect  a  principal,  and 
the  board  and  the  principal  will  struggle  with  the  local 
conditions ;  working  together  they  will  build  up  and 
conduct  the  schools.    There  may  be  infinite  variations, 
but  the  vital  conditions  of  efficiency  are  secured. 

RURAL  SCHOOL  LIBRARIES  AND  SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 

Some  helps  are  essential  in  order  to  secure  the 
best  results.  The  school  library  easily  comes  first. 
In  rural  homes  the  best  books  are  not  numerous. 


EFFICIENT  RURAL  SCHOOLS.  225 

The  school  does  most  when  it  develops  a  taste  for  the 
best  literature  and  supplies  free  the  best  books. 

1.  The  Principal  is  Librarian.     Each  teacher  is 
an  assistant  librarian.     In  the  central  building  a  room 
is  fitted  up  for  the  district  library.     The  county  super- 
intendent approves  the  lists  of  books  to  be  purchased. 
The  library  is  free  to  all  persons  in  the  district.     Juve- 
nile books  predominate,  but  there  are  suitable  books 
for  all.     The  library  is  rich  in  the  best  books  for 
teachers. 

2.  The  School  Library  continually  grows.     The 
State  makes  a  small  annual  appropriation  for  sustain- 
ing each  district  library.     The  school  board  also  ap- 
propriates a  small  amount  annually.     A  course  of  lec- 
tures is  given  annually  at  the  central  school  and  the 
proceeds  go  to  the  library.     Liberal  men  and  women 
make  helpful  contributions. 

3.  Each  School  has  its  Small  Working  Library. 
These  libraries  are  reported  as  a  part  of  the  district 
library  and  are  in  charge  of  the  teacher.     An  un- 
abridged dictionary,  a  suitable  encyclopaedia,  and  a 
few  choice  books  of  reference  are  the  essentials.     Be- 
sides these,  each  teacher  has  a  special  working  library. 
On  alternate  Saturdays,  while  attending  the  teachers' 
meetings,  the  teacher  procures  special  books  for  the 
pupils  and  for  the  working  library.* 

4.  Necessary  Apparatus  is  furnished  each  School. 
The  most  helpful  things  are  procured,  but  nothing  is 
purchased  without  the  approval  of  the  principal  and 
the  county  superintendent.     Country  pupils  live  close 


*  See  Chapters  VII  and  IX. 

10 


226  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

to  Nature  and  learn  to  make  things,  but  some  articles 
of  apparatus  are  exceedingly  helpful.  As  with  books, 
so  with  apparatus  :  our  rural  youths  are  entitled  to  the 
advantages  of  suitable  aids.  Only  the  best  helps  are 
secured.  The  teacher  is  charged  with  the  care  of  the 
apparatus. 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  EURAL  SCHOOLS. 

1.  The  Country  School  may  claim  some  Decided 
Advantages.     The  pupils  live  nearer  to  Nature  than 
city  pupils,  have  greater  physical  vigour,  have  gained 
better  working  habits,  and  are  less  exposed  to  vicious 
temptations  and  to  hurtful  excitements.     The  worthy 
country  teacher  is  a  closer  friend  of  his  pupils  and  a 
more  pervading  force  in  pupil  life.     As  a  rule,  rural 
pupils  are  more  independent  and  self-helpful.     These 
advantages  count  for  much.     Our  rural  schools,  at 
their  best,  do  in  eight  months  the  work  that  city 
schools  do  in  ten  months. 

2.  The  Country  School  has  its  Serious  Disadvan- 
tages.    Irregular  attendance,  short  terms,  low  salaries, 
incompetent  teachers,  frequent  changes  of  teachers,  op- 
position to  improvements,  wretched  school  facilities — 
these  are  some  of  the  obstacles  we  must  encounter  in 
our  efforts  to  improve  rural  schools.     Then,  one  teacher 
is  compelled  to  instruct  the  eight  grades  of  pupils  in 
all  the  different  branches.     As  in  primitive  times  the 
farmer  was  blacksmith  and  shoemaker  and  carpenter 
as  well  as  farmer,  so  the  country  teacher  must  do  all 
the  work  divided  between  the  eight   teachers  of  a 
graded  school.     But  most  of  the  disadvantages  may 


EFFICIENT  RURAL  SCHOOLS.  227 

be  removed  or  so  modified  as  to  work  less  and  less 
injury.  Our  ungraded  country  schools  are  a  neces- 
sity. In  these  schools  we  instruct  fully  half  of  all 
our  pupils.  To  make  our  country  schools  the  best 
possible  is  our  great  educational  desideratum. 

CLASSIFICATION  IN  UNGRADED  SCHOOLS. 

1.  A  Class  is  a  Group  of  Pupils  capable  of  work- 
ing together.     Age,  abilities,  and  attainments  are  con- 
sidered in  arranging  pupils  into  working  groups.     The 
vital  test  is,  "  Can  this  pupil  work  with  most  profit  in 
this  class  ? "     Before  deciding,  the  teacher,  as  best  he 
can,  studies  the  pupil.     Very  much  depends  on  the 
decision.     Teachers   lacking   pupil   insight,  like   un- 
skilful physicians,  may  make  fatal  blunders. 

2.  The  Ungraded  /School  should  be  classified  in 
view  of  the  Graded  School.     Our  people  are  continu- 
ally moving  from  country  to  town  and  from  town  to 
country.     We  must  so  organize  our  schools  that  these 
changes  may  not  interrupt  the  work  of  the  pupil. 
Then  our  ungraded  schools  tend  to  become  partially 
graded  schools,  and  these  gradually  grow  into  fully 
graded  schools.     The  classification  of  the  rural  schools 
must  facilitate  these  transitions. 

3.  The  Four-class  Grouping  seems  best.     The  four- 
class  plan  is  believed  to  be  the  best  possible.     It  makes 
it  easy  for  the  schools  as  well  as  for  the  pupils  to  pass 
into  graded  schools ;  its  school  advantages  are  mani- 
fold. 

The  pupils  are  grouped  into  four  classes,  desig- 
nated by  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  D.     Each  class  stands 


228  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

for  two  years  of  school  work.  Class  D  includes  the 
first-  and  second-grade  pupils  of  the  graded  school  ; 
class  C,  the  third-  and  fourth-grade  pupils ;  class  B, 
the  fifth-  and  sixth-grade  pupils  ;  class  A,  the  seventh- 
and  eighth-grade  pupils.  As  a  rule,  the  country 
pupils  in  a  class  are  a  few  months  older  than  the 


city  pupils  in  corresponding  grades, 
tendency,  as  rural  schools  improve, 
toward  correspondence  in  age. 

4.  The  Work  of  the  lin- 
ed School  is   limited  to      ^ 
mentary  Studies.     The 
study,       the       pro-    c 
the  plans  of  work     ^ 
view   of    this     *J$ 


schools  are 
attempt- 
a    rule 
The  ele- 
the    entire 
cases  the  teach- 


The 


is 


grad- 
theEle- 
course  of 
gramme,  and 
are  projected  in 
limitation.     Rural 
often  embarrassed  by 
ing  advanced  work.     As 
this  should  be  discouraged, 
mentary  work  should  command 
energies  of  the  teacher.     In  some 
er  is   justified   in   instructing   ad- 


vanced pupils  before  and  after  regular  school  hours. 
In  very  small  schools  such  instruction  may  safely  be 
given  during  the  school  hours.  It  is  every  way  better 
to  promote  advanced  pupils  to  the  central  high  school. 


RURAL  SCHOOL  STUDY  GROUPS. 

System  is  the  condition  of  efficiency.  "We  select 
the  minimum  number  of  the  best  studies  and  arrange 
them  in  co-ordinate  groups.  Continuous  lessons  in 
each  group  are  required  to  prepare  the  pupils  for 


EFFICIENT  RURAL  SCHOOLS.  229 

complete  living,  and  at  the  same  time  prepare  them 
for  advanced  school  work. 


fcx 

Q 

b 

H 

ori 

1-303 


mo 


(  Special  conduct  lessons. 
CONDUC  J  Orftl  higto      oml  civicg> 


STUDIES.        j  Qral  mind  ^ssons> 

2.  LANGUAGE-      (  Reading  and  spelling,  language  lessons, 

LITERATURE  •<      grammar,  composition. 
STUDIES.         (  Child  literature,  juvenile  literature. 

3.  SCIENCE  j  Geography,  oral  biology,  hygiene. 

STUDIES.         (  Oral  physics,  oral  astronomy. 

4.  MATHEMATICS  j  Arithmetic,  concrete  geometry. 

STUDIES.         {  Introductory  algebra,  oral  bookkeeping. 

5    ART  STUDIKS  •(  Pn7sical  culture,  vocal  music. 

*  1  Penmanship,  drawing,  manual  training. 


The  grouping  is  easy,  natural,  practical.  The 
country  teacher  studies  these  groups  as  a  map  of  his 
work.  He  asks,  "  How  can  I  best  weave  these  sub- 
jects into  my  course  of  study  and  my  programme  ? " 
The  course  of  study  expresses  in  years  the  combina- 
tion of  the  study  groups;  the  programme  expresses 
the  same  thing  in  days.  Good  teaching  correlates  the 
various  studies  and  unitizes  the  work. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

1.  The  Prolonged  Study  of  a  Few  Subjects  is  the 
True  Plan. — The  course  of  study  for  rural  schools 
must  exclude  many  subjects  in  order  that  pupils  may 
master  a  few  subjects.  We  study  the  Report  of  the 
Fifteen  as  a  mine  of  educational  wealth,  and  find  its 
matter  and  its  suggestions  invaluable.  We  study  the 
country  school  in  its  history,  in  its  environments,  and 
in  its  possibilities.  In  the  light  of  the  world's  thought 
and  experience  we  study  to  create  a  course  of  study 
adapted  to  rural  schools. 


230  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


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EFFICIENT  RURAL  SCHOOLS.  231 

2.  The  Work  is  Progressive. — It  is  apparent  that 
each  class  is  kept  in  touch  with  the  great  departments 
of  human  learning.     The  same  subjects  are  studied 
throughout  the  eight  years,  but  each  class  studies  a 
special  phase  of  a  subject.     The  number  lessons  of 
the  D's  become  the  algebra  lessons  of  the  A's,  and 
the  historic  stories  of  the  D  class  become  the  lessons 
in   American  and  general  history   of  the   A  class. 
Continuous  and  progressive  work  characterizes  well- 
arranged  school  courses. 

3.  The  Recitation  Periods. — School  exercises  con- 
ducted by  the  teacher  are   called  recitations.     The 
course  provides  for  one  daily  recitation  in  each  study 
group.     Necessarily  the  language-literature  and  the 
art  groups  are  given  two   daily  recitation  periods. 
Each  pupil  has  seven  recitation  periods  daily. 

4.  Length  of  Recitations. — Efficient  work  requires 
time.     Even  in  the  country  school  fifteen  minutes 
seems  to  be  minimum  time  for  good  work.     In  prac- 
tice we  find  that  in  the  D  and  C  classes  we  can  do 
reasonably  satisfactory  work  in  fifteen  minutes;  but 
we  find  it  wise  to  make  the  recitation  time  for  the  B 
and  A  classes  twenty-five  minutes. 

THE  COUNTRY-SCHOOL  PROGRAMME. 

1.  Efficient  Work  comes  of  a  Good  Programme. — The 

difficulties  are  immense.  One  teacher  must  do  the 
work  of  the  eight  teachers  in  the  graded  school.  No 
wonder  that  most  programmes  for  ungraded  schools 
are  crude !  Few  teachers  profoundly  study  the  con- 
ditions, and  so  fail  to  form  a  good  working  pro- 
gramme. As  a  result,  the  time  and  the  energies  of 


232  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

teacher  and  pupils  are  squandered.  The  programme 
here  submitted  is  the  result  of  years  of  thought  and 
experience.  The  author  has  visited  several  hundred 
country  schools  and  earnestly  studied  the  rural  school 
work  in  many  of  our  States. 

2.  Combined  Recitations  are  a  Necessity. — An  un- 
graded school  has,  we  will  say,  forty  pupils.     The 
classification  gives  us  fifteen  D's,  eleven  C's,  eight 
B's,  and  seven  A's.     How  may  one  teacher  best  man- 
age all  this  class  work  ?     Experience  answers,  "  Make 
judicious  combinations."      (1)  Let  the  art  work  in- 
clude as  far  as  possible  all  the  classes.     The  teacher 
can  have  all  at  work  at  the  same  time  and  still  adapt 
the  work  to  the  classes.     (2)  Combine  the  A's  and 
B's  in  most  subjects.     These  classes  are  always  small. 
The  reviews  and  much  advanced  work  may  be  made 
to  suit  both  classes.     While  the  A's  are  doing  written 
work  the  B's  may  have  oral  work.     (3)  In  the  con- 
duct work  combine  the  D's  and  C's  and  the  B's  and 
A's.     This   combination  is  especially  helpful.     Such 
class  combinations  often  more  than  double  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  rural  teacher. 

3.  There  is  Immense  Gain  in  Concentration. — The 
entire  school  concentrate  on  one  study.     While  the 
D's  recite  arithmetic  all  the  other  classes  study  arith- 
metic.    While  the  C's  recite  geography  all  the  other 
pupils  study  geography.    This  device  is  decidedly  help- 
ful.    The  teacher  who  once  tries  it  will  always  use  it. 
It  is  the  only  possible  plan  that  can  make  it  easy  for 
the  teacher  to  manage  the  study  classes  as  well  as  the 
recitation  work.     In  the  programme,  blackfaced  type 
indicates  recitation  and  common  type  indicates  study. 


EFFICIENT  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 


233 


Suggestive  Programme  for  Ungraded  Schools. 


Min. 

Closing 

time. 

Class  D. 

Clas.  C. 

Class  B. 

Class  A. 

10 

15 
15 
25 

9.00 

OP 

ENING    EX 

ERCISES. 

9.15 
9.30 
9.55 

Oral  arith.  or  form. 
Oral  arith.  or  form. 
Reading  lesson. 

Primary  arith. 
Arith.  or  form. 
Primary  arith. 

Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 

Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 

10 

10.05 

RECE 

ss. 

15 
15 
25 

10.20 
10.35 
11.00 

Reading,  spelling. 
Reading,  spelling. 
Seat  work. 

Lang.  &  comp. 
Lar  g.&  comp. 
Lang.  &  comp. 

Lang.  &  comp. 
Lang.  &  comp. 
Lang.  &  comp. 

Gram.  &  comp. 
Gram.  &  comp. 
Gram.  &  comp. 

10 

15 
15 
25 

30 

15 

25 
15 

11.10 

RECE 

SS. 

11.25 
11.40 
12.05 

Geog.  or  biology. 
Geog.  or  biology. 
Seat  work  or  play. 

Geog.  or  biol. 
Geog.  or  biol. 
Geog.  or  biol. 

Geog.  or  biol. 
Geog.  or  biol. 
Geog.  or  biol. 

Geog.  or  biol. 
Geog.  or  biol. 
Geog.  or  biol. 

12.35 

NOON    RE 

CESS. 

12.50 
1.15 
1.30 

Music. 
Writing  or 
drawing, 
Physical  culture. 

Musit. 
Writing  or 
drawing. 
Phys.  culture. 

Music. 
Writing  or 
drawing. 
Phys.  culture. 

Music. 
Writing  or 
drawing. 
Phys.  culture. 

10 

1.40 

RECE 

SS. 

15 
15 
25 

1.55 
2.10 
2.35 

Reading,  spelling. 
Reading  lesson. 
Seat  work. 

Read.,  spell. 
Read.,  spell. 
Readingf 

Reading. 
Reading. 
Read,  or  lit. 

Reading. 
Reading. 
Read,  or  lit. 

10 

15 
25 

2.45 

RECE 

SS. 

3.00 
3.25 

Conduct  lesson. 
Dismiss. 

Cond.  lesson. 
Dismiss. 

Cond.  or  hist. 
Cond.  or  hist. 

Cond.  or  hist. 
Cond.  or  hist. 

234  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

4.  The  D  Glass  is  divided  into  Sections  One  and 
Two. — Except  in  reading,  the  two  sections  are  com- 
bined.    In  reading,  while  the  teacher  instructs  one 
section  a  pupil  from  class  A  instructs  the  other  sec- 
tion ;  but  the  teacher  will  have  both  sections  daily,  as 
the  D's  have  two  lessons  in  reading  each  day.    As  the 
language  lessons  and  the  science  lessons  are  also  read- 
ing lessons,  the  D's  are  well  provided  for. 

5.  The  Hourly  Recess  is  exceedingly  Helpful — It 
helps  to  secure  good  ventilation,  keeps  the  pupils  fresh 
and  happy,  and  makes  control  much  easier.    It  enables 
teacher  and  pupils  to  accomplish  daily  at  least  one 
third  more  work.     For  the  country  school  the  hourly 
recess  is  of  special  educational  value. 

6.  A  Pupil  Teacher  may  render  Needed  Assistance. 
— In  large  country  schools  the  best  of  all  devices  for 
relieving  the  overworked  teacher  is  the  provision  for 
a  pupil  assistant.     Many  young  teachers  wish  practice 
under  skilful  guidance,  and  will  gladly  take  the  place 
of  pupil  assistant.     Many  school  boards  will  freely 
provide  some  compensation. 

7.  Grouping  the  Studies  is  an  Incalculable  Help. — 
The  programme  articulates  the  study  groups.     Such 
a  programme  is  a  work  of  art  and  pleases  like  a  poem. 
It  places  each  pupil  in  continuous  touch  with  each  of 
the  realms  of  human  learning.     The  practical  group- 
ing of  the  school  studies  renders  the  making  of  school 
programmes  a  real  art. 

THE  THREE-GROUP  PROGRAMME. 

Teacher,   study    carefully   the    three-group    pro- 
gramme.    It  is  full  of  helpful  suggestions.     It  is  sim- 


EFFICIENT  RURAL  SCHOOLS.  235 

pie  and  comprehensive.  It  is  used  with  good  results 
in  various  States.  Visit  good  ungraded  schools  and 
observe  the  workings  of  different  programmes.  Study 
earnestly  your  own  school  and  create  your  own  pro- 
gramme. The  course  of  study  and  the  programme 
are  fundamental  in  school  work.  The  following  sug- 
gestions by  Dr.  E.  E.  White  will  prove  of  great  value 
to  you.  To  prevent  confusion,  group  has  been  substi- 
tuted for  grade  in  these  paragraphs ;  the  grade  pro- 
gramme is  for  a  typical  ungraded  school. 

1.  The  programme  of  class  exercises  and  seat  work  shown  on 
the  next  page  is  adapted  to  a  school  divided  into  the  three  sec- 
tions or  groups.    The  class  exercises  are  indicated  by  bold-faced 
type,  and  the  study  or  seat  work  by  common  type. 

2.  The  programme  divides  the  day  session  into  periods  of 
twenty,  twenty-five,  and  thirty  minutes  each,  the  spelling  drills  in 
the  two  upper  grades  being  considered  one  period.    It  also  divides 
the  teacher's  time  equitably  among  the  three  groups  of  pupils.    In 
the  forenoon  the  A  group  has  three  exercises;  the  second  or  B 
group,  two  exercises ;  and  the  primary  or  C  group,  two  exercises. 
In  the  afternoon  the  A  group  has  three  separate  exercises  (includ- 
ing spelling) ;  the  B  group,  two  exercises ;  and  the  C  group  two. 
All  three  groups  have  two  simultaneous  exercises,  one  in  writing 
and  language  and  one  in  drawing,  singing,  etc.    It  is  thus  seen 
that  the  A  group  of  pupils   has  eight  exercises  each  day,  the 
B  group  six  exercises,  and  the  C  group  five ;  but  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  the  A  group  has  two  more  studies  than  the  B,  and  the 
B  group  has  one  more  than  the  C.    The  attention  given  to  the 
preparation  and  direction  of  the  seat  work  of  the  pupils  in  the  C 
group  (as  explained  below)  will  make  the  time  devoted  to  this 
group  about  the  same  as  that  devoted  to  the  B  group. 

3.  A  rural  school  of  some  thirty  pupils  would  probably  have 
two  classes  in  the  A  group,  two  in  the  B  group,  and  three  in  the 
C  group,  making,  in  all,  seven  different  classes  of  pupils.    The 
time  allotted  by  the  programme  to  a  class  exercise  in  the  A  group 
— in  arithmetic,  for  example — must  be  divided  between  the  two 
classes  (if  there  be  two  classes  in  a  group),  but  not  equally  from 


236  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 
White's  Three- Oroup  Programme.} 


CLOSING 
TIME 

MIN- 
UTES 

PRIMARY  (O 

(GRADES  I.  i  II) 

SECONDARY  (B) 

(GRADES  III  &  IV) 

ADVANCED  (A) 

(GRADES  V,  VI,  VJI  &.  VIII) 

9:10 

10 

OPENING  EXERCISES 

9:35' 

25 

Beat  Work* 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

1D:00 

25 

Number 

(  On  slute  or  with  objects) 

.Arithmetic 

Geography 

10:25 

25 

Number 

Geography 

Geography 

10:45 

20 

Form  Work 

(Paper  foldin^stick  laying. 

Geography 

Geography 

10:55 

10 

RECESS 

11:15 

20 

Silent  Reading 

Geography 

Grammar 

JL35 

20 

Heading  and 
Spelling 

Form  Work 
(Map  drawing,  sand  molding, 
etc.) 

Grammar 

12:00 

25 

Excused  from  School 

Reading 

Grammar 

NOON  INTERMISSION 

1:10 

10 

X 

X 

X 

130 

20 

Form  Work 
(Clay  modeling,  paper  cutting, 
etc.) 

Beading 

Reading 

1:50 

20 

Silent  Reading 

Seat  Work* 

Beading 

2.10 

20 

Beading  and 
Spelling 

Animal  or  Plant 
Study 

U.  S.  History  or 
Physiology 

2:10 

30 

"Writing2 
or  Language3 

Writing2 
or  Language3 

Writing2 
or  Language3 

2:50 

10 

RECESS 

3:10 

20 

Number 

(On  slate  or  with  objects) 

Spelling 

TJ.  S.  History  or 
Physiology 

3:35 

25 

Drawing?  Singing? 
or  Moral  Instruc- 
tion.1 

Drawing?  Singing'; 
or  Moral  Instruc- 
tion.1 

Drawing,2  Singing2 
or  Moral  Instruc- 
tion.1 

3:50 

15 

Excused  from  School 

Spelling 

Spelling 

4:00 

10 

Arithmetic 

Spelling 

*  As  may  be  provided  for  by  the  teacher. 

t  White's  School  Management,  p.  90,  American  Book  Company.  Is  in- 
serted by  permission  of  the  author  and  the  publisher. 

NOTES.— The  small  figures  at  right  indicate  the  number  of  lessons  a 
week. 


EFFICIENT  RURAL  SCHOOLS.  237 

day  to  day,  as  much  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  lessons.  One 
day  the  upper  class  may  have  only  ten  minutes  and  the  lower  class 
fifteen,  and  the  next  day  this  may  be  reversed.  What  the  pro- 
gramme requires  is  that  the  two  exercises  do  not  together  exceed 
the  time  assigned  to  the  group. 

4.  The  primary  group  presents  the  most  difficulties,  since  it 
usually  contains  more   classes  than   the  upper  groups ;  but  the 
classes  are  small  and  the  lessons  are  short,  and  very  effective  work 
can  be  done  with  three  small  primary  classes  in  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  minutes.    The  teacher  will  need  to  take  a  few  minutes 
before  school  to  prepare  seat  work  for  them,  and  a  minute  or  two 
may  now  and  then  be  taken  from  the  time  of  the  upper  grades  to 
start  them  in  such  work.    Some  capable  pupil  may  often  be  as- 
signed to  assist  primary  pupils.    If  neither  history  nor  physiology 
is  a  regular  branch  of  study,  one  more  daily  period  may  be  as- 
signed to  the  primary  classes,  and  the  same  may  be  done  if  neither 
drawing  nor  music  is  regularly  taught. 

5.  The  inexperienced  teacher  may  not  see  how  three  groups  of 
pupils  may  be  taught  simultaneously  in  drawing,  or  writing,  or 
language,  each  grade  having  its  appropriate  lesson,  as  provided 
for  in  the  programme,  but  experience  has  solved  this  difficulty. 

THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  FACULTY. 

The  isolated  school  and  the  isolated  teacher  be- 
long in  the  past.  In  our  time  schools  are  grouped, 
and  teachers  are  organized  into  faculties.  "  Country 
school  faculty  !  "  Yes,  my  friend,  the  colleges  must  not 
have  all  the  good  things.  A  group  of  rural  teachers 
working  together  as  a  unit,  by  extending  the  meaning 
of  the  term  a  little,  may  properly  be  called  a  rural 
school  faculty. 

1.  The  principal  is  a  specialist  in  rural  school 
work.  lie  is  the  professional  adviser  of  the  school 
board  and  the  right  arm  of  the  county  superintendent. 
He  gives  unity  and  intelligent  direction  to  the  school 
work  of  the  district.  Above  all,  he  unites  the  teachers 


238  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

into  a  working  faculty,  and  thus  unitizes  the  school 
work  of  the  district. 

2.  The    assistant   teachers,   with    the    principal, 
constitute   the  rural  school  faculty.     As  a  working 
body,  they  plan  and  carry  on  the  school  work  of  the 
district.     The  course  of  study  and  the  programme 
must  leave  details  to  be  worked  out  by  the  faculty. 

3.  The  faculty  meetings  occur  on  alternate  Sat- 
urdays, and  are  counted  a  part  of  the  regular  school 
work.     All  enter  heartily  into  these  councils.     Each 
one  gains  inspiration  and  also  contributes  something 
to  help  others.     These  faculty  meetings  are  of  the 
highest  value ;  they  will  revolutionize  the  rural  schools. 

PARTIALLY  GRADED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS. 

Partially  Graded  Schools. — The  ungraded  school  is 
the  crudest  and  least  economical  form  of  school  or- 
ganization. Whenever  and  wherever  possible  the  un- 
graded school  must  be  evolved  into  the  partially 
graded  school.  At  first  we  have  a  principal  and  one 
assistant.  The  principal  takes  the  A  and  B  classes, 
the  four  intermediate  grades,  and  the  assistant  takes 
the  C  and  D  classes,  the  four  primary  grades.  The 
schools  are  now  designated  as  the  primary  and  the  in- 
termediate. Experience  demonstrates  a  large  gain  by 
this  partial  grading.  Each  teacher  added  multiplies 
the  gains.  The  transformations  must  be  so  adjusted 
as  to  give  each  teacher  as  nearly  as  possible  an  equal 
number  of  pupils.  Often  the  principal  must  take  into 
his  room  a  lower  class  in  order  to  equalize  the  work. 

At  best  the  graded  organization  is  defective,  but 
it  is  doubtless  the  highest  form  admissible  in  country 


EFFICIENT  RURAL  SCHOOLS.  239 

schools  and  primary  schools.  The  most  rudimentary 
form  of  the  graded  school  is  doubly  as  efficient  as  the 
ungraded  school.  Ultimately  some  way  will  be  found 
to  largely  transform  the  ungraded  into  graded  schools. 
Massachusetts  for  some  years,  by  furnishing  free  trans- 
portation, has  given  the  country  pupils  the  same  ad- 
vantages as  the  city  pupils.  The  children  within  a 
radius  of  four  and  a  half  miles  are  transported  in 
wagons  to  and  from  central  schools.  The  result  is  so 
satisfactory  that  comparatively  few  ungraded  schools 
are  now  to  be  found  in  the  State.  Other  States  are 
moving  in  the  same  way,  and  doubtless  each  State  will 
devise  some  plan  to  make  its  rural  schools  better  and 
better. 

THE  RURAL  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

The  District  Central  School  evolves  into  the  District 
High  School — This  development  comes  naturally  from 
conditions,  and  is  the  crown  and  summit  of  rural  school 
organization  ;  it  brings  within  the  reach  of  all  our 
youths  high-school  instruction.  Country  youths  do  not 
mind  travelling  on  bicycle,  horse,  or  mule  even  six  and 
seven  miles  to  attend  a  good  high  school.  At  present 
only  three  pupils  out  of  a  hundred  enter  our  high 
schools.  Place  the  high  school  within  easy  reach  of 
every  home,  and  we  may  safely  hope  to  see  within  a 
decade  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent  of  our  youths  enter 
the  high  school.  The  gain  every  way  will  be  mar- 
vellous. The  district  principal  becomes  also  the  high- 
school  principal,  and  his  assistant  takes  the  elementary 
pupils.  In  these  schools  two  years  of  high-school 
work  may  be  done  to  the  immense  advantage  of  rural 
youths  and  at  the  minimum  cost. 


2iO  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

METHODS  OF  WORK  IN  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS. 

1.  The  Best  for  Each  Pupil  must  be  planned. 
No  pupil,  even  in  ungraded  schools,  must  be  kept 
back  or  pushed  forward  to  his  hurt.     As  the  very 
best  practical  device  to  secure  efficiency,  the  pupils 
are  placed  in  four  classes,  and  each  class  is  divided 
into  sections  one  and  two.     Teachers  must  keep  in 
mind  that  section  one  is  a  year  in  advance  of  section 
two.     In  some  studies  the  sections  can  work  together 
profitably ;  in  other  studies,  such  as  arithmetic,  the 
sections  must  be  given  different  work.     To  keep  the 
advanced  pupils  marking  time,  or  to  drive  the  least 
advanced  pupils  to  despair,  is  ruinous.    To  keep  each 
pupil  doing  continuously  his  best  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult, but  it  must  be  done.     In  some  cases  a  pupil 
assistant  is  the  best  solution.     Some  teachers  get  good 
results  through  alternate  recitations.     The  most  satis- 
factory device,  as  a  rule,  is  the  combined  recitation ; 
the  sections  are  given  alternately  oral  and  written 
work. 

2.  There  must  be  More  Study  and  Less  Teaching. 
This    is   simply   a    necessity    in    ungraded    schools. 
The  pupil  must  be  educated  to  work  out  his  own  sal- 
vation.    Sturdy  independence  and  self-helpfulness  are 
peculiar  products  of    the  rural  school.      Pupils  are 
trained  to  find  out  for  themselves.     The  conditions 
are  such  that  the  pupils  must  depend  largely  on  their 
own   efforts,   but   the   teacher    continually   suggests, 
guides,  inspires,  instructs. 

3.  There  must  be  More  Text-book  Work  and  Less 
Oral  Teaching.    The  recitation  periods  are  necessarily 


KINDERGARTENS  AND  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS.    241 

shorter,  and  the  pupils  must  do  more  home  study.  The 
one  teacher  can  not  possibly  do  extended  oral  work 
in  all  the  subjects ;  but  the  pupils  are  from  one  to 
two  years  older  than  in  the  corresponding  classes  of 
the  graded  school,  and  the  rural  industries  in  which 
the  pupils  engage  and  their  closer  associations  with 
Nature,  help  to  render  more  good  bookwork  possi- 
ble. The  teacher,  it  is  true,  supplements  the  book 
and  shows  the  pupil  how  to  gain  knowledge  from 
Nature  and  from  books,  but  he  is  compelled  to  limit 
extended  oral  work  to  a  few  subjects.  The  school 
library  is  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  country  school. 
The  pupils  are  trained  to  find  out  from  books. 


CHAPTEE  XXII. 

PUPIL     IMPROVEMENT    THROUGH    EFFICIENT     KINDERGAR- 
TENS   AND    PRIMARY    SCHOOLS. 

INTELLIGENT  pupil  study  characterizes  the  new 
education.  Physiologists,  psychologists,  and  educa- 
tors have  taught  us  to  study  the  child  in  the  light 
of  science.  Each  teacher  studies  the  little  ones  for 
herself.  She  lives  close  to  her  pupils,  and  she  finds 
that  love  of  children  is  the  divine  key  to  child  nature. 
She  is  able  to  lead  her  pupils  to  mastery  through  glad 
effort,  for  she  is  their  wise  and  loving  friend.  Her 
work  and  her  methods  are  based  on  a  knowledge  of 
the  real  child.  Knowing  child  activities  and  child 
17 


24:2  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

needs  and  the  laws  of  child  growth,  she  wisely  adapts 
the  matter  and  the  methods  to  her  pupils.  God  and 
the  mothers  give  the  precious  children  into  her  hands, 
and  lovingly  she  leads  them  in  the  paths  of  peace. 

THE  KINDERGARTEN  AND  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOL. 

Play  characterizes  childhood  and  is  the  central 
idea  in  the  kindergarten.  Jean  Paul  thought  of  play 
as  man's  first  poetry,  and  the  instrument  through 
which  all  his  higher  possibilities  are  developed. 
Froebel  is  counted  the  great  educational  reformer 
because  he  planned  to  make  play  educative.  In  1816 
he  created  the  embryo  kindergarten  ;  by  1916  the 
kindergarten  will  have  become  co-extensive  with  the 
primary  school. 

1.  From   the  Fourth   to  the  Sixth   Year  is  the 
Kindergarten  Age.     The  mothers  are  God's  kinder- 
gartners  ;  every  wise  mother  studies  to  make  the  play 
of  her  little  ones  educative,  but  the  child   of   four 
needs  the  larger  life  of  the  kindergarten.     In  cities  it 
is  wise  to  gather  the  neglected  infants  into  kinder- 
gartens as  early  as  the  third  year. 

2.  Kindergarten  embodies  the  Philosophy  of  Edu- 
cation.     The   wise   and   kind   kindergartner   works 
with  God  and  the  mothers  to  make  the  most  of  the 
precious  infants.     The  little  ones  are  kept  as  free  and 
as  happy  as  the  birds.     They  are  gently  led  to  ex- 
plore, to  see,  to  hear,  to  taste,  to  smell,  to  touch,  to 
do.     New  and  old  experiences  are  assimilated  and  re- 
membered.   Making  new  combinations  educates  child 
imagination.      As  flowers   bud  and  blossom,   so  the 
kindergarten    pupils  grow  physically,  mentally,  and 


KINDERGARTENS  AND  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS.    243 

morally.  All  right  habits  are  cherished.  All  exer- 
cises increase  strength  because  they  are  proportioned 
to  the  strength  of  the  pupils.  The  growth  is  sym- 
metrical because  all  the  native  activities  are  wisely 
exercised. 

3.  A  Warm  Motherly  Heart  is  the  Kindergart- 
ners     Divine     Commission.      Culture    is    essential. 
Profound  child  study  is  a  sine  qua  non.     Good  schol- 
arship and  at  least  two  years  of  professional  work 
under  the  training  of  skilled  kindergartners  is  indis- 
pensable.    The    kindergartner    is   an    artist   of    the 
highest  rank,  and  requires  even  more  preparation  for 
her  work  than  the  musician  or  the  painter  or  the 
sculptor.     Her  skill  awakens  all  that  is  lovely  in  the 
immortal  child. 

4.  We   are   Rich   in    Kindergarten    Literature. 
Froebel's   Education  of   Man   easily  heads  the  list; 
then  Miss  Blow's  Symbolic  Education  and  her  songs 
and   music   of   Froebel's   Mother   Plays ;    Hailman's 
Kindergarten  Manual  and  Primary  Helps;  Froebel's 
Pedagogics  of  the  Kindergarten,  by  Miss  Jarvis ;  and 
the  current  kindergarten  literature. 

5.  Semi-kindergarten  Work  characterizes  the  First 
Primary  Grade.     The  transition  from  the  home  or 
kindergarten  to  the  school  is  made  in  this  grade.   Semi- 
kindergarten  work  renders  the  transition  natural  and 
helpful.     The  child  is  now  six  years  old  and  may 
profitably,  after  a  few  weeks,  begin  to  use  books,  but 
the  kindergarten  spirit  is  dominant.     The  children 
are  still  largely  educated  through  play,  and  are  led  to 
experience  everything  possible.     The  teacher  is  too 
sensible  to  use  many  of  the  gifts  and  plays  devised 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

for  the  younger  pupils.  The  infant  is  now  a  child 
and  must  be  given  child  work.  The  play  impulse  is 
strong,  but  the  plays  are  different.  The  pupils  feel 
free  and  happy,  but  they  learn  to  work  orderly.  The 
semi-kindergarten  has  been  a  gradual  growth.  The 
most  gifted  teachers  have  been  selected  for  this  grade 
at  advanced  salaries.  Thus  it  has  come  about  that 
the  old  first  grade  primary  has  been  imperceptibly 
transformed  into  the  semi-kindergarten,  to  the  incal- 
culable advantage  of  the  pupils. 

THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOLHOUSE  AND  PRIMARY  HELPS. 

Nothing  is  too  Good  for  the  Child. — Froebel  taught 
his  embryo  kindergarten  in  a  hovel  without  a  floor  or 
a  door  or  a  stove.  To-day  the  kindergarten  home  is 
a  child  palace,  full  of  delights.  The  old  schoolhouse 
was  repulsive  and  bare,  and  the  work  corresponded. 
~No  wonder  parents  had  to  force  their  children  to  go 
to  school !  In  our  times  the  primary  school  with  its 
surroundings  and  its  furnishings  is  a  thing  of  beauty, 
and  the  primary  pupils  are  the  happiest  of  mortals. 

1.  TF0  must  build  our  Ideal  Primary  School- 
house  around  our  Ideal  Primary  School.     The  typ- 
ical primary  building  has  four  rooms — one  room  for 
each  grade.     Some  schools  have  eight  primary  rooms, 
and  a  teacher  for  each  primary  class.     Large  primary 
schools  are  not  desirable.     It  is  better  to  have  four- 
room  buildings  near  the  homes  of  the  pupils.     Mass- 
ing young  children  is  an  educational  mistake. 

2.  Primary  Buildings  should  be  Hygienic.    The 
lighting  and   heating   and   ventilating  should  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  perfect.     The  physical-culture  hall 


KINDERGARTENS  AND  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS.    245 

should  be  ideal ;  it  should  be  so  placed  as  to  be  con- 
venient for  both  the  primary  and  intermediate.  In 
detached  primary  buildings  wide  halls  answer  for 
gymnastic  purposes. 

3.  A  Primary  Schoolroom  must  le  fitted  up  for 
Primary  School  Work.  The  kindergarten  realizes 
our  ideal,  and  so  should  the  primary  schoolroom. 
The  single  adjustable  desks  are  educative  as  well  as 
hygienic.  The  table  for  moulding  and  weighing  and 
measuring  is  indispensable.  Suitable  apparatus  is 
more  needed  in  the  primary  than  in  any  other  school. 
The  primary  room  should  be  a  picture  gallery. 

4:.  The  Primary  Library  should  be  the  Best.  In 
each  primary  room  is  a  revolving  bookcase  contain- 
ing a  hundred  child  books  adapted  to  the  grade.  The 
primary  faculty  select  the  books  and  plan  for  their 
use.  We  are  becoming  so  rich  in  primary  literature 
that  we  are  embarrassed  in  selecting  the  best. 

TIIE  PRIMARY  FACULTY. 

1.  The  Primary  Faculty  is  an  Organic  Educa- 
tional Unit.     A  primary  school  is  complete  in  itself. 
Its  principal  and  her  assistants  constitute  the  primary 
faculty.     The  principal  is  the  unitizing  element.     She 
conducts  the  faculty  lessons  in  child   study  and  in 
primary  methods.     All  members  of  the  primary  fac- 
ulty are  familiar  with  the  work  done  by  each  ;  all 
work   as  a  unit  in   promoting   child   growth.     The 
primary  tenure  of  office  for  tried  teachers  is  during 
efficient  work. 

2.  The   Primary  Principal  is  a  Specialist  in 
Primary  Work.     For  this  reason  she  is  made  prin- 


246  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

cipal.  She  is  charged  with  the  primary  control  and 
the  primary  teaching.  Besides  teaching  the  fourth 
grade,  she  inspires  her  assistants  and  unitizes  the  en- 
tire primary  work.  She  keeps  the  primary  school  in 
touch  with  the  kindergarten  on  the  one  hand,  and 
with  the  intermediate  on  the  other.  She  so  manages 
that  the  primary  work  is  enriched  by  the  visits  of  the 
intermediate  specialists.  In  all  cases  she  works  in  har- 
mony with  the  intermediate  principal. 

3.  Each  Primary  Assistant  is  a  Primary  /Spe- 
cialist.    Each  one  is  elected  because  she  is  a  gifted 
and  trained  primary  teacher.     The  educational  world 
has  come  to  demand  the  best  ability  and  the  highest 
skill  in  the  primary  school,  and  salaries  have  been  in- 
creased to  correspond  with  this  demand.    Each  teacher 
works  in  complete  harmony  with  the  principal. 

4.  The  Primary  Work  is  unitized.     The  princi- 
pal and  her  assistants  at  their  weekly  meetings  study 
systematically  the  primary  work.     Two  choice  books 
each  year  are  studied  and  discussed.     The  work  of 
each  grade  is  studied  and  its  relations  to  the  work  of 
other  grades,  and  its  programme  are  carefully  consid- 
ered.    To  teach  the  best  things  in  the  best  ways  is  the 
ideal.     But  unity  of  work  is  the  desideratum.     The 
child  mind  is  a  unit,  and  the  child  world  must  be  a  unit. 
The  great  study  of  the  teachers  is  to  lead  the  children 
to  assimilate  their  acquisitions  into  their  lives  and 
thus  into  unity.     Number  lessons  are  blended  with 
the   language  lessons   and  with  the  Nature  lessons. 
All  lessons  supplement  and  re-enforce  each  lesson,  just 
as  in  the  mental  economy  all  the  native  activities  of 
self  supplement  and   re-enforce  each  activity.     The 


KINDERGARTENS  AND  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS.    247 


work  of  each  teacher  harmonizes  with  the  work  of  all 
the  teachers.  The  primary  work  is  an  organic  unit. 
The  tremendous  importance  of  correlation  and  con- 
centration is  beginning  to  be  realized. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PEIMAEY  SCHOOL. 

1.  The  Primary  School  is  Sui  Generis.     It  is  the 
pleasant  school  home  of  childhood.     The  pupils  re- 
quire personal  help.     School  evolution  carries  up  into 
the  graded  primary  school  the  best  in  individualism, 
the  best  in  classification  and  gradation,  but  wisely 
stops  short  of  specialization.     The  primary  is  strictly 
a  graded  and  classified  school,  and  this  is  the  highest 
stage   of  its   educative  development.     Specialization 
hurts  and  does  not  help  the  primary  school. 

2.  The  Plan  of  the  Primary  Softool^  is       ex- 


from 


tremely  Simple.    The  pupil  is  a  child 
its  sixth  to  its  tenth  year.     Natu- 
ly  we  group  the  children  in- 
four  grades,  correspond- 
to  the   four  primary 
The   pupils  in  a 
divided  into  two 


years. 

&rade  are 
classes  :  class 

beginners  in 
an'd  class  A  includes 
pupils        in 

grade.  The  pupils  in  a  class 
vided  into  sections,  and  these 
dicated  as  B1,  B2,  and  A1,  Aa. 
between  grades  is  one  school  year  ; 
the  step  between  classes  is  half  a  school  year  ;  the  step 
between  sections  is  one  fourth  of  a  school  year. 


B    includes 
the  grade, 
the  ad- 
the 
are  di- 
are    in- 
The    step 


248  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

Where  the  school  year  is  divided  into  four  terms  the 
above  plan  is  considered  best.  Where  the  school  year 
is  divided  into  three  terms  it  is  doubtless  better  to 
divide  the  pupils  in  each  grade  into  three  classes,  B, 
M,  and  A ;  B  including  the  beginners,  M  the  middle 
class,  and  A  the  advanced  class.  The  interval  between 
classes  in  schools  thus  organized  is  one  third  of  the 
school  year.  The  four-group  plan  is  more  flexible, 
and  has  decided  advantages  in  combining  recitations 
and  in  making  promotions. 

3.  Pupils  are  Promoted  ~by  Classes  semi-annually 
or  quarterly.  Promotion  by  classes  occurs  at  the 
close  of  each  half  year ;  the  B's  in  a  grade  become 
the  A's,  and  the  A's  in  a  grade  become  the  B's  of  the 
next  grade.  Where  classes  are  divided  into  sections 
with  reference  to  advancement,  promotion  occurs  at 
the  close  of  each  quarter.  The  primary  principal,  as- 
sisted by  the  teachers,  places  each  primary  pupil  in 
the  proper  grade,  and  the  teacher  of  a  grade  places 
her  pupils  in  the  proper  classes.  Fitness  to  do  well- 
advanced  work  warrants  individual  and  class  promo- 
tions. Whenever  the  teacher  becomes  satisfied  that  a 
pupil  will  be  benefited  by  promotion  to  a  higher  class 
the  faculty  makes  the  change.  In  most  cases  it  is  found 
best  to  give  bright  pupils  additional  work,  and  thus 
have  them  advance  with  their  classes.  The  teacher  of 
the  grade  makes  all  promotions  within  her  grade,  but 
the  primary  faculty  makes  all  promotions  to  advanced 
grades  on  the  recommendation  of  the  teacher.  The 
intermediate  principal,  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
primary  principal,  promotes  individuals  and  classes 
from  the  primary  to  the  intermediate  school. 


KINDERGARTENS  AND  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS.    249 

4.  Individual  Teaching  is  a  Desideratum  in 
Primary  Organization.  Forty  pupils  may  be  con- 
sidered the  limit  of  efficiency.  This  limit  gives  the 
primary  class  of  twenty  and  the  section  of  ten  pupils. 
With  a  group  of  ten,  the  teacher  is  able  to  treat  each 
pupil  as  an  individual,  and  combine  the  best  individ- 
ual with  the  best  class  work. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

Lines  of  work  are  indicated,  but  details  are  neces- 
sarily left  to  the  insight  and  skill  and  inspiration  of 
the  teachers.  Mechanical  routine  and  slavish  lesson 
hearing  are  utterly  out  of  place  in  all  schools,  but 
more  especially  in  the  primary  school.  At  the  best 
and  at  the  worst,  detailed  courses  of  study  for  the  pri- 
mary grades  must  be  taken  as  suggestive;  primary 
faculties  must  work  out  the  applications. 

1.  The  Primary  Study  Groups  outline  the  Primary 
"Work. — The  studies  are  the  same,  but  the  work  is 
limited  to  the  child  phase  of  the  studies. 


2 


i ^ *»v v M.  X^A.-  >  'i  v  I'll,.-.      ^  \^jiij.v4.  .11 1 ^i HL m \.-j  co  111  position* 

M 


CONDUCT  GROUP  OF         (  SG^     government,    how     to 
(  Conduct  lessons,  oral  history. 

LANGUAGE-LITERATURE  j  Reading,  language  lessons. 
GROUP  OF  STUDIES.     (  Child  literature,  compositio 


SCIENCE  GROUP  OF          (  Oral  S^graphj,  primary  geog- 


h  T 

(  Oral  biology,  oral  hygiene. 

MATHEMATICS  GROUP     j  Oral  arithmetic,  primary  arith- 

OF  STUDIES.  1  ,-,  metlc< 

f_t  (  Form  lessons. 

ART  GROUP  OF  (  Writing  drawing,  vocal  music 

STUDIES  1  Manual  training,  physical   cul- 

(      ture. 


250  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


Course  of  Study  for  Primary  Schools. 


I 

Grade. 

Conduct. 

Language- 
literature. 
Science. 
Mathematics. 
Art. 

Conduct    lessons,    study    habits,    historic 
stories. 
Reading,  language  lessons,  child  literature, 
composition. 
Oral  geography,  oral  biology. 
Oral  arithmetic,  form  lessons. 
Writing,  drawing,  vocal    music,   physical 
culture,  manual  training. 

II 
Grade. 

Conduct. 
Language- 
literature. 
Science. 
Mathematics. 
Art. 

Conduct  lessons,  historic  stories. 
Reading,  language  lessons,  child  literature, 
composition. 
Oral  geography,  oral  biology,  oral  hygiene. 
Oral  arithmetic,  form  lesson. 
Writing,   drawing,   vocal    music,  physical 
culture,  manual  training. 

Ill 
Grade. 

Conduct. 

Language- 
literature. 
Science. 

Mathematics. 
Art. 

Conduct  lessons,  study,  oral  history,  oral 
civics. 
Reading,    language    lessons,    composition, 
child  literature. 
Primary  geography,  oral  biology,  oral  hy- 
giene, oral  physics. 
Primary  arithmetic,  form  lessons. 
Writing,  drawing,  manual  training,  music, 
physical  culture. 

IV 

Grade. 

Conduct. 

Language- 
literature. 
Science. 

Mathematics. 
Art. 

Conduct  lessons,  study,  oral  history,  oral 
civics. 
Reading,    language    lessons,    composition, 
child  literature. 
Primary  geography,  oral  biology,  oral  hy- 
giene, oral  physics. 
Primary  arithmetic,  form  lessons. 
Writing,  drawing,  manual  training,  music, 
physical  culture. 

These  co-ordinate  groups  give  in  perspective  the 
primary  work,  and  furnish  a  basis  for  the  course  of 
study  and  the  programmes. 

2.  The  Primary  Course  of  Study  is  Simple  and  Flex- 
ible.— It  must  never  be  stereotyped.  Its  purpose  is 
suggestive.  Its  aim  is  to  secure  well-planned  work 


KINDERGARTENS  AND  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS.    251 

by  keeping  the  pupils  in  touch  with  the  great  depart- 
ments of  human  learning. 

It  is  the  true  policy  to  leave  each  primary  faculty 
free  to  work  out  their  specific  courses  of  study  and  con- 
struct their  own  programmes.  The  general  course  of 
study  leaves  unlimited  scope  for  invention  and  bet- 
terment. 

3.  Primary  Programmes  must  be  adapted  to  the 
Grades. — The  ablest  educators  will  scarcely  venture  to 
submit  even  suggestive  primary  programmes.     This 
work  must  always   be  left  to  the   primary  faculty. 
Yariety,  brevity,  efficiency,  are  the  essentials.     Effi- 
ciency means  the  mastery  of  a  few  things,  and  health- 
ful and  vigorous  growth.     Class  periods  vary  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  minutes.     The  no-recess  experiment 
proved  a  signal  failure.     The  policy  of  having  a  re- 
cess of  ten  minutes  each  hour  for  the  primary  grades 
is  thoroughly  sound.     Where  buildings  are  properly 
arranged,  hourly  recesses  help  to  secure  good  ventila- 
tion and  wonderfully  help  to  keep  the  pupils  fresh 
and  happy.    Frequent  recesses  make  the  control  much 
easier.    Well-managed  recreations  increase  efficiency. 

4.  Primary  Programmes  must  not  be  fixed. — The 
ideal  primary-school  programme  is  exceedingly  flex- 
ible and.  so  adaptable.     The  programme  is  made  for 
the  pupils;  the  principal  and  her  assistants  are  al- 
ways ready  to  make  desirable  changes.     A  suggestive 
programme  for  a  primary  grade  is  submitted  more 
to    indicate    a    plan   for    creating    artistic    primary 
programmes   than   for   actual   primary  work ;    it  is 
safe  to  leave  the  making  as  well  as  the  adjusting  of 
the  programmes  in  the  hands  of  the  primary  teach- 


252   SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


Suggestive  Programme  for  Primary  Schools. 

GRADE   IV. 


1 

Closing 
Urn*. 

CLASS  B. 

CLASS  A. 

Bl. 

Ba. 

A1. 

A2. 

10 

15 
15 
15 
15 

9.10 

O 

PENING 

EX  E  R  C  I  8  E 

S. 

9.25 
9.40 
9.55 
10.10 

Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 

Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 

Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 

Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 
Beading. 

10 

10.20 

REC 

ESS. 

20 
15 
15 

10.40 
10.55 
11.10 

Writ,  or  draw. 
Phys.  culture. 
Vocal  music. 

Writ,  or  draw. 
Phys.  culture. 
Vocal  music. 

Writ,  or  draw. 
Phys.  culture. 
Vocal  music. 

Writ,  or  draw. 
Phys.  culture. 
Vocal  music. 

10 

11.20 

REC 

ESS. 

20 
20 

80 

11.40 
12.00 

Geog.  or  biol. 
Geog.  or  biol. 

Geog.  or  biol, 
Geog.  or  biol. 

Geog.  or  biol. 
Geog.  or  biol. 

Geog.  or  biol. 
Geog.  or  biol. 

12.30 

NOON    R 

ECESS. 

15 
15 
15 
15 

10 

20 
20 

12.45 
1.00 
1.15 
1.30 

ArithcOrform. 
Arith.  or  form. 
Arith.  or  form. 
Arith.  or  form. 

Arith.  or  form. 
Arith.  or  form. 
Arith.  or  form. 
Arith.  or  form. 

Arith.  or  form. 
Arith.  or  form. 
Arith.  or  form. 
Arith.  or  form. 

Arith.  or  form. 
Arith.  or  form. 
Arith.  or  form. 
Arith.  or  form. 

1.40 

REC 

ESS. 

2.00 
2.20 

Lang,  or  lit. 
Lang,  or  lit. 

Lang,  or  lit. 
Lang,  or  lit. 

Lang,  or  lit. 
Lang,  or  lit. 

Lang,  or  lit. 
Lang,  or  lit. 

10 

2.30 

REC 

ESS. 

20 
20 

2.50 
3.10 

Cond.  or  hist. 
Cond.  or  hist. 

Cond.  or  hist. 
Cond.  or  hist. 

Cond.  or  hist. 
Cond.  or  hist. 

Cond.  or  hist. 
Cond.  or  hist. 

SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS.       253 

ers.  Superintendents  and  intermediate  principals  will 
do  well  to  confine  themselves  to  general  suggestions. 
The  ideal  primary  school,  like  the  kindergarten,  is 
unique  and  complete  in  itself.  Its  faculty  plans  and 
executes. 


CHAPTEK  XXIII. 


PUPIL   IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    CORRELATED    AND 
SPECIALIZED    INTERMEDIATE    SCHOOLS. 

Pupil  Growth  is  Continuous. — There  is  no  break  in 
the  educational  highway.     The  child,  as    /^  well  as  the 
man,  perceives,  thinks,  creates  ideals, 
acts.     The  kindergarten  pupil  pur- 
the  same  subjects  as  the  college 
dent.     The  human  constitu- 
the  laws  of  human  devel- 
and  human  environments 
to  a  human  life. 

S*^/  "V         .df         /  n  '/ 

Periods.      The 
growth  are  well 
the       race      passes 
phases  of  development 
agery  to  enlightenment, 


1.  Educational 
stages  of  human 
defined.       As 
through 
from  sav- 
so     the 
stages  of 
ties  are   the 


pupil  passes  through  similar 
'  growth.  The  elemental  activi- 
same  from  infancy  to  age,  but  as 
the  years  go  by  the  feeble  activities  of  the  child  be- 
come the  mighty  activities  of  the  man.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  child  Newton  puzzling  over  his  first 


254  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

easy  problems  and  the  philosopher  Newton  solving 
the  problems  of  the  universe  is  a  thing  of  growth. 
The  same  subjects,  it  is  true,  are  studied,  but  the 
phases  of  the  subjects,  as  well  as  the  methods  of  work, 
vary  as  the  pupils  advance. 

2.  Each  Group  of  Schools  is  Unique.    Each  stands 
for  a  stage  of  pupil  development.     The  kindergar- 
ten stands  for  infancy ;  it  utilizes  play,  familiarizes 
spoken  and  pictured  symbols,  and  adapts  matter  and 
methods  to  the  little  ones.     The  primary  stands  for 
childhood ;  it  makes  close  connection  with  the  kinder- 
garten, utilizes  written  symbols,  and  adapts  the  matter 
and  the  methods  to  the  children.    The  intermediate 
stands  for  boyhood  and  girlhood  ;  it  makes  close  con- 
nection with  the  primary,  utilizes  the  restless  activities 
of  the  intermediate  pupils,  and  adapts  the  matter  and 
the  methods  to  girls  and  boys.    The  high  school  stands 
for  youth ;  it  makes  close  connection  with  the  inter- 
mediate, utilizes   exploration   and  investigation,  and 
adapts  the  matter  and  the  methods  to  youths.    The  col- 
lege stands  for  young  manhood  and  young  womanhood  ; 
it  makes  close  connection  with  the  high  school,  utilizes 
research,  and  adapts  the  matter  and  the  methods  to 
young  men  and  women. 

3.  School  Evolution  has  had  its  Stages  of  De- 
velopment.    Individualism  characterized  the  crudest 
form  of  school  work.     The  ancient  schoolmaster  in- 
structed his  pupils  one  by  one.     This  was  the  first 
stage  of  school  growth.     Classification  characterized 
the  second  stage  of  school  evolution.     The  teacher 
discovered  in  the  class  a  most  helpful  device  for  pu- 
pil betterment.     The  new  education  then  wisely  com- 


SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS.       255 

bined  individualism  and  classification.  Grading  char- 
acterized the  third  stage  of  school  evolution.  Teachers 
discovered  the  incalculable  value  of  division  of  labour 
in  school  work.  Each  teacher  instructed  a  grade  of 
pupils  in  all  the  subjects.  The  new  education  then 
wisely  combined  individualism,  classification,  and  grad- 
ing. Specialization  characterizes  the  fourth  stage  of 
school  evolution.  A  teacher  devotes  himself  completely 
to  a  single  group  of  school  studies,  and  so  he  becomes 
an  educational  artist.  The  new  education  wisely  com- 
bines individualism,  classification,  grading,  and  spe- 
cialization in  the  ideal  intermediate  school  work. 

THE  IDEAL  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL. 

1.  The  Specialized  Intermediate  commends  itself. 
Our  old  grammar  schools  with  all  their  defects  are  ac- 
complishing great  things,  but  they  are  nowhere  satis- 
factory. We  study  educational  problems  in  view  of 
future  possibilities.  What  will  the  intermediate  be  in 
a  half  century  ?  Viewed  from  this  standpoint,  we  are 
more  apt  to  see  in  its  true  perspective  the  specialized 
intermediate  school  of  the  future.  The  spirit  of  edu- 
cational progress  will  certainly  compel  the  early  trans- 
formation of  our  grammar  schools.  The  comparative 
crudeness  of  their  organization  and  management,  and 
their  monstrous  waste  of  pupil  and  teacher  energy, 
is  becoming  evident  even  to  the  most  conservative. 
The  specialized  intermediate  school,  it  is  believed, 
will  give  almost  perfect  organization  and  manage- 
ment, will  economize  energy  to  the  utmost,  and  will 
give  the  highest  efficiency.  It  will  embody  the  world's 
best  educational  thought  and  experience. 


256  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

2.  The  Intermediate  Stage  of  Pupil  Growth  is 
Unique.     We  think  of  pupils  from  their  tenth  to 
their  fourteenth  year  as  girls  and  boys.     Marvellous 
physical  activity  characterizes  this  stage  of  growth. 
The  great  activity  of  sense-perception  and  the  burn- 
ing desire  to  find  out,  inake  of  each  pupil  a  keen  ex- 
plorer.    The  ready  memory  and  the  astonishing  imi- 
tative power  make  this  peculiarly  the  habit-forming 
period.     The  activity  of  the  social  emotions  leads  to 
the  formation  of  beautiful  friendships,  mostly  between 
girls  and  girls  and  boys  and  boys.     Happy  the  teacher 
who  wins  the  hearts  of  the  boys  and  girls ! 

3.  The  Teacher  must  understand  the  Girl  and  the 
Boy.     The  self  is  not  now  a  child  nor  a  youth,  but 
a  girl,  a  boy.     This  is  the  intermediate  stage  of  de- 
velopment   coming    between    childhood    and   youth. 
The  school  for  boys  and  girls  is  an  intermediate  school, 
not  a  grammar  school.     We  study  earnestly  this  stage 
of  growth  that  we  may  promote  the  physical  well- 
being  of  the  intermediate  pupils.     We  study  intently 
this  stage  of  intellectual  growth  that  we  may  wisely 
adapt  the  matter  and  the  methods  to  the  boys  and 
girls,  and  foster  healthy  and  vigorous  mental  growth. 
We  study  with  absorbing  interest  girls  and  boys  as 
emotional  beings  that  we  may  stimulate  all  ennobling 
impulses  and  repress  all  hurtful  feelings.     We  care- 
fully study  this  stage  of  will  growth  that  we  may  lead 
our  pupils  to  develop  self-control  and  form  desirable 
habits. 

4.  The  Intermediate  must  he  adapted  to  Girls  and 
Boys.     The  intermediate  is  not  an  advanced  primary 
or  a  lower  high  school ;  it  is  sui  generis  and  unique. 


SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS.       257 

Everything  is  planned  and  executed  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  intermediate  pupil.  We  live  close  to  the 
boys  and  girls  and  learn  to  understand  them.  What 
is  best  for  our  pupils  during  this  trying  stage  of 
growth?  The  school  building,  the  course  of  study, 
the  programme,  the  management  and  the  methods  of 
work,  are  all  planned  to  promote  the  best  interest  of 
the  real  girls  and  boys. 

5.  Intermediate  Specialization  characterizes  the 
Ideal  Intermediate.  Specialization  is  the  key  to  effi- 
ciency as  well  as  progress.  In  education  as  in  practi- 
cal life,  the  best  results  are  secured  by  carrying  division 
of  labour  to  its  legitimate  and  helpful  limits.  The 
kindergarten  and  the  higher  education  are  splendid 
object  lessons,  showing  the  tremendous  advantages  of 
wise  specialization.  The  departmental  experiment  in 
our  grammar-school  work  was  predoomed  because  it 
thought  of  the  grammar  school  as  a  lower  college. 
Nevertheless,  these  crude  experiments  demonstrated 
the  advantages  of  specialization  and  of  the  division 
of  labour  in  the  intermediate  school.  Intermediate 
specialization  must  be  unique,  for  it  must  be  adapted 
to  boys  and  girls.  It  must  unitize  as  well  as  special- 
ize ;  must  co-ordinate  as  well  as  separate ;  must  con- 
centrate as  well  as  correlate. 

BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENTS  FOE  THE  SPECIALIZED 
INTERMEDIATE. 

1.  School  Buildings  must  le  planned  for  School 

Work.     The  transformation  of  our  grammar  schools 

will  require  a  radical  change  in  the  construction  and 

equipment   of   our   school   buildings.     Every   school 

18 


258  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

building  should  be  planned  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  school.  The  school  architect  literally  builds  the 
schoolhouse  around  the  school.  When  our  present 
school  buildings  were  planned  we  thought  of  the 
grammar  school  as  merely  an  advanced  primary 
school.  The  intermediate  school  of  the  future  will 
necessitate  new  intermediate  schoolhouses  and  new 
equipments.  Like  all  advances,  this  will  work  hard- 
ships ;  but  the  change  from  the  old  to  the  new  need 
not  be  made  hastily.  It  is  a  work  of  time  to  prepare 
an  army  of  specialists,  and  prepare  the  world  for  this 
grand  forward  movement.  Some  old  buildings  may 
be  changed  so  as  to  meet  the  new  conditions.  As  new 
buildings  are  needed  we  can  realize  in  these  our  ideal 
intermediate  schoolhouses. 

2.  The  Special  School- Building  System.  Three 
well-marked  stages  in  modern  school  architecture 
interest  educators.  The  union  school  system,  one 
large  study  room  with  small  recitation  rooms  open- 
ing out  of  it,  was  the  crude  and  cruel  pioneer.  The 
pupils  of  all  grades  were  massed  in  the  study  hall, 
and  governed  by  the  boss  principal.  The  massing 
system,  though  the  worst  possible,  led  up  to  grading. 
The  grade  system,  initiated  by  Superintendent  J. 
D.  Philbrick,  of  Boston,  in  1848,  was  one  of  the 
greatest  of  all  inventions  by  the  way  of  school  build- 
ings. The  twelve-room  school  building  was  consid- 
ered ideal ;  each  teacher  now  governed  and  taught 
one  grade.  This  beneficent  system  soon  became  gen- 
eral, and  is  still  the  basis  of  our  graded  school  work. 
But  the  world's  educational  progress  during  half  a 
century  makes  it  clear  (1)  that  each  group  of  schools 


SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS.       259 

must  be  sui  generis;  (2)  that  the  faculty  of  each 
school  must  be  a  teaching  unit;  (3)  that  ideal  school 
buildings  must  be  built  around  ideal  schools.  The 
special  school-building  system  is  a  growth.  The  high 
school  was  the  first  group  of  schools  to  outgrow 
the  grade  system.  Everywhere  we  are  now  build- 
ing ideal  high-school  buildings  around  ideal  high 
schools.  In  the  fitness  of  things  the  grade  system 
will  persist  in  our  primary  schools,  but  the  ideal  pri- 
mary schoolhouse  must  be  built  around  the  ideal  pri- 
mary school.  It  is  becoming  evident  that  our  gram- 
mar schools,  like  our  high  schools,  are  outgrowing 
the  grade  system,  and  must  soon  be  transformed  to 
meet  the  new  conditions.  We  must  create  our  ideal 
intermediate  school,  and  construct  around  it  an  ideal 
intermediate-school  building.  "We  may,  as  yet,  not 
even  venture  to  suggest  plans,  but  the  essentials  are 
becoming  clear.  The  ideal  intermediate  building  must 
be  every  way  adapted  for  specialized  intermediate 
work.  1.  The  conduct  room  must  be  constructed  and 
fitted  up  for  conduct  teaching.  2.  The  language-lit- 
erature room  must  be  fitted  up  for  teaching  language 
and  literature.  3.  The  science  room  must  be  fitted 
up  for  teaching  intermediate  science.  4.  The  mathe- 
matics room  must  be  fitted  up  for  teaching  interme- 
diate mathematics.  5.  The  art  room  must  be  fitted 
up  for  teaching  the  intermediate-school  arts.  The 
special  school-building  system  will  embody  the  best 
in  the  world's  experience  and  will  give  us  buildings 
adapted  to  the  graded  primary  school,  to  the  special- 
ized intermediate  school,  to  the  specialized  depart- 
ment high  school,  and  to  the  department  college. 


260  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

INTERMEDIATE  FACULTY. 

The  meaning  of  the  word  faculty  is  enlarged  to 
include  any  group  of  special  teachers.  Each  inter- 
mediate teacher  is  a  specialist,  and  all  the  teachers  of 
an  intermediate  school,  working  as  a  unit,  constitute 
an  intermediate  faculty. 

1.  The  Principal  is  a  Conduct  Specialist.     For 
this   reason   he   is   made   principal.     The   principal, 
first  of  all,  is  a  specialist  in  school  management.     To 
him  it  is  a  delight  to  govern  up  to  self-government 
and  control  up  to  self-control.     Corporal  punishment 
and  percentage  marks  and  prizes  are  not  thought  of  ; 
good  conduct  is  secured  through  ennobling  motives. 
The  girls  and  boys  are  led  through  high  incentives  to 
conduct  themselves  properly,  to  study  diligently,  and 
to  become  womanly  and  manly.     The   work  of  the 
principal  re-enforces  the  work  of  the  other  teachers. 
He  is  the  unitizing  element  in  the  faculty. 

2.  Each  member  of  the  faculty  is  an  intermediate 
specialist  in  one  group  of  studies.     Relieved  from  the 
incubus  of  government  and  from  the  distraction  of 
trying  to  teach  the  entire  course,  each  intermediate 
teacher  devotes  his  entire  energies  to  teaching  a  special 
group  of  related  subjects.     As  each  teacher  has  the 
same  pupils  for  four  years,  he  makes  them  his  friends, 
studies  them  one  by  one,  and  adapts  the  matter  and  the 
methods  to  each  individual.     Teaching  becomes  a  de- 
light, and  teachers  are  transformed  from  drudges  into 
enthusiastic  artists.    They  grow  with  the  years,  become 
women  and  men  of  marked  culture,  keep  fresh  and  vig- 
orous and  sweet,  and  at  sixty  are  still  counted  efficient. 


SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS        261 

3.  The  intermediate  faculty  is  composed  of  about 
an  equal  number  of  male  and  female  teachers.  All 
positions  are  open  to  prepared  teachers,  regardless  of 
sex.  The  educational  gain  is  incalculable.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  fitness  will  give  a  majority  of  the  interme- 
diate principalships  to  female  teachers,  but  the  dan- 
gerous tendency  of  the  old  grammar  school  to  practi- 
cally confine  the  education  of  our  boys  and  girls  to 
female  teachers,  will  be  obviated. 

THE  INTERMEDIATE  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

1.  The    transformed    intermediate    school    will 
necessitate  a  transformed  course  of  study.     It  is  in- 
finitely important  that  the  matter  and  the  methods 
should  be  the  best  possible,  for  from  the  intermediate 
schools  the  great  body  of  our  pupils  go  out  into  life. 
The  old  grammar  school  squanders  fully  half  the  en- 
ergies of  teachers  and  pupils.    A  wise  economy  through 
specialization  will  enable  the  new  intermediate  school 
to  do  vastly  more  work  and  vastly  better  work. 

2.  Pupil  Good  is  the  Ultimatum.     All  the  work 
must  be  work  adapted  to  girls  and  boys.     Either  pri- 
mary or  high  school  work  during  this  period  produces 
arrested  growth.     The  intermediate  work  must  be  the 
best  possible  to  prepare  the  pupils  for  complete  living. 
The  intermediate  work  must  be  the  best  to  prepare  the 
pupils  for  the  high-school  work  and  for  life.     What 
work  is  the  best  for  the  pupils  ?     We  must  begin  by 
sweeping  away  rubbish — work  that  hurts  and  does  not 
help.     From  the  rich  realms  of  knowledge  we  must 
select  the  subjects  and  the  phases  of  the  subjects  which 
experience  has  shown  to  be  most  helpful. 


262  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

3.  The  Intermediate  Study  Groups  outline  the  In- 
termediate Work.  The  five  co-ordinate  groups  give 
us  in  one  view  the  intermediate  work  in  terms  of  sub- 
ject-matter. The  outline  specializes  and  unitizes  the 
intermediate  work  and  maps  out  the  specific  work  of 
each  teacher. 

p     -,  (  Conduct  lessons,  how  to  study,  school  discipline. 

•I  Oral  biographical  history,  American  history. 
(  Civics,  religion,  mind  lessons. 

j  T  Reading,  expression. 

j  ?.n  I   Language  lessons,  grammar,  composition. 

|  Juvenile  literature,  what  to  read,  how  to  read. 
ies'        [  Latin  or  German  or  French  begun. 

M  th        <-v     (  Arithmetic,  introductory  algebra. 

s   -j  Concrete  geometry,  oral  trigonometry. 
ies>       (  Oral  bookkeeping. 

v,  oral  astronomy. 


Art  j   Physical  culture,  manual  training. 

Studies.        (  Penmanship,  drawing,  vocal  music. 

4.  The  Programme  Course  of  Study  presents  the 
subjects  in  their  time  relations.  The  grading  and 
classification  of  our  grammar  schools  are  eminently 
satisfactory.  The  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth 
grades  of  our  graded  schools  are  the  intermediate 
grades.  Each  grade  embraces  two  classes,  the  b's 
(the  beginners)  and  the  a's  (the  advanced  pupils).  We 
designate  the  classes  in  a  grade  by  the  letters  a  and  b, 
and  the  grade  by  the  exponents  of  these  letters.  For 
convenience  we  here  use  the  small  letters.  Thus,  b5 
and  a5  denote  respectively  the  beginners  and  the  ad- 
vanced pupils  of  the  fifth  grade.  The  step  between 
classes  is  half  a  school  year. 


SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS.       263 


The  Intermediate  Programme  Course  of  Study. 


Recita- 

Grades. 

Study  groupi. 

Subject.. 

tion 

period*. 

Conduct. 

Oral  general  history,  how  to  study,  conduct 
lessons,  oral  civics. 

5 

Grade 

Language-lit- 
erature. 

Reading,    language    lessons,    composition, 
literature. 

10 

V, 

Science. 

Geography,  oral  biology,  oral  physics. 

5 

Classes 
a*b5, 
V  year. 

Mathematics. 
Art. 

Arithmetic,  concrete  geometry. 
Physical  culture,  writing,  drawing,  music, 
manual  training. 

5 
10 

Daily  lessons 

4  prepared  and  3  oral  ;  total  weekly  

35 

Conduct. 

Oral  general  history,  how  to  study,  conduct 

5 

lessons,  oral  civics. 

Grade 

Language-lit- 

Reading,   language    lessons,    composition, 

10 

VI, 

erature. 

literature. 

Classes 
a«b«, 
VI 

Science. 
Mathematics. 
Art. 

Geography,  oral  biology,  oral  physics. 
Arithmetic,  concrete  geometry. 
Physical  culture,  writing,  drawing,  music, 

5 
5 
10 

year. 

manual  training. 

Daily  lessons 

4  prepared  and  3  oral  ;  total  weekly  .... 

35 

Conduct. 

Oral  general  history,  American  history,  con- 

5 

duct  lessons,  civics,  mind  lessons. 

Grade 

Language-lit- 
erature. 

Literature,    grammar,  composition,    Latin 
begun,  or  German  or  French. 

10 

VII, 

Classes 

_7  u-7 

Science. 
Mathematics. 

Geography,  oral  biology,  oral  physics. 
Arithmetic,  introductory  algebra,  concrete 

5 
5 

el     Q  • 

1TTT 

geometry. 

VII 

Art. 

Physical  culture,  drawing,  music,  manual 

10 

year. 

training. 

Daily  lessons 

,  4  prepared  and  3  oral  ;  total  weekly  

35 

Conduct. 

Oral  general  history,  American  history,  con- 

5 

duct  lessons,  civics. 

Language-lit- 

Literature, grammar,  composition,  Latin, 

10 

erature. 

German  or  French. 

Grade 
VIII, 

Classes 
a8h8, 

VTTT 

Science. 
Mathematics. 

Art. 

Geography,  oral  biology,  oral  physics. 
Arithmetic,  introductory  algebra,  oral  ge- 
ometry, oral  trigonometry. 
Physical  culture,  drawing,  music,   manna! 

5 
5 

10 

V  111 

year. 

training. 

Daily  lessons 

,,  4  prepared  and  8  oral  ;  total  weekly  

35 

264  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

5.  Pupils  are  promoted  by  classes  at  the  middle 
and  at  the  close  of  the  school  year.  Individual  pupils 
are  promoted  whenever  the  intermediate  school  faculty 
consider  promotion  desirable.  As  each  teacher  has 
each  pupil  daily  for  four  years,  great  pliability  is 
secured  and  the  wants  of  individuals  may  be  met. 
The  teachers  in  their  weekly  meetings  determine  spe- 
cial promotions.  Fitness  is  the  consideration.  As  a 
rule,  bright  pupils  are  given  additional  work  and  are 
advanced  with  their  grades,  but  no  pupil  is  kept  back 
to  his  hurt. 

GENERAL  PROGRAMME  FOR  SPECIALIZED 
INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS. 

1.  The  General  Intermediate  Programme  sched- 
ules the  Recitation  and  Study  Periods.     Each  teacher 
works  out  a  specific  programme,  giving  his  work  in 
detail.*    The  faculty  agree  on  the  general  programme, 
and  the  principal  approves  the  special  programmes. 
The  recitation  periods  are  uniformly  thirty  minutes. 
The  programme  provides  in  all  ten  daily  recitation 
periods ;  each  pupil  studies  during  three  periods  and 
recites  during  seven.     All  pupils  prepare  one  or  two 
lessons  at  home,  and  all  are  led  to  read  juvenile  liter- 
ature at  home  at  least  one  hour  daily. 

2.  For  Four  Years  each  Pupil  spends  One  Daily 
Recitation  Period  with  each  Teacher.    This  is  count- 
ed as  one  of  the  beneficent  features  of  the  specialized 
intermediate,  and  will,  it  is  believed,  double  the  edu- 
cative value  of  the  present  grammar-school  work.    One 

*  See  Part  VI. 


SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS.       265 


of  the  world's  foremost  educators  says  :  "  One  of  the 
most  dreadful  things  I  can  think  of  is  that  a  pupil 
should  have  the  same  teacher  for  four  years ;  I  shud- 
der to  think  of  it.  The  pupil  gets  all  that  is  educa- 

Suggestive  Programme  for  Specialized  Intermediate  Schools. 


CLOSING 
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MATHE- 
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SCIENCE 

ART 

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tive  out  of  a  new  teacher's  personality  in  less  than  a 
year ;  gets  used  to  her  peculiarities,  and  gets  to  know 
her  methods  of  study  and  discipline.  The  pupil  re- 
ceives a  sort  of  impress  which,  if  kept  up  for  four 
years,  will  endure  for  life.  The  result  is  arrested 
development.  After  six  months  or  a  year  the  im- 
pression becomes  negative  to  the  real  growth  of  the 
pupil."  And  we  all  shudder  and  quake  at  the  thought 


266  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

of  dooming  our  children  to  spend  six  hours  a  day  for 
four  dreary  years  under  the  average  overworked  grade 
teacher.  But  we  count  the  girls  and  boys  fortunate 
who  are  privileged,  for  four  precious  years,  to  work 
a  golden  half  hour  daily  with  each  of  five  earnest, 
cultured,  growing  specialists. 

3.  An  unlimited  number  of  excellent  programmes 
are  possible.     The  hourly  recess  and  the  alternations 
of  easy  and  difficult  studies  will  secure  good  work 
during  each  period. 

4.  All  Movements    occur  as    signalled    by    the 
Programme   Clock.     The  electric   bells  regulate  all 
movements,  and  teacher  energy  is  devoted  strictly  to 
educative   work.     The   device   for   having   the   pro- 
gramme clock,  by  means  of  electric  bells,  call  and  dis- 
miss school  and  call  and  dismiss  all  classes,  is  proving 
an  immense  help  in  school  work. 

THE  SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL  AT  WORK. 

1.  The  Faculty  is  an  Organic  Unit.     Division  of 
work  and  specialization  are  carried  to  their  helpful 
limits,  but  there  is  also  complete  unity.     The  faculty 
are  an  organic  teaching  unit.     All  the  teachers  under- 
stand and  keep  in  touch  with  the  work  of  each  teacher ; 
each  one  supplements  and  re-enforces  the  work  of  all. 
Each  lesson  is  given  in  view  of  all  lessons.     The  pupil 
is  led  to  assimilate  into  unity  all  his  acquisitions.     The 
pupil  world  is  a  growing  organic  unit. 

2.  Each  Member  of  the  Faculty  is  a  Friend  of 
each  Pupil.     For  four  years  each  teacher,  each  day, 
instructs  each  pupil.     Each  pupil  is  thought  of  as  a 
friend,  and  the  best  individual  work  is  combined  with 


SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS.       207 

the  best  class  work.  Each  teacher  earnestly  works 
for  the  good  of  each  pupil. 

3.  Interest,  Duty  :  all  High  Incentives  are  made 
Vital.     Such  antiquated  educational  blunders  as  the 

rod  terror,  the  marking  terror,  the  examination  ter- 
ror, the  nonpromotion  terror,  and  the  reporting  ter- 
ror are  not  thought  of.  Each  teacher  is  an  educator, 
and  bends  all  his  energies  to  the  promotion  of  pupil 
good.  The  pupil  gets  in  love  with  the  work,  and 
gets  to  delight  in  manly  conduct  and  in  masterly 
effort. 

4.  The  Principal  is  the  Centralizing  Force.     He 
is  a  specialist  in  conduct  culture  and  in  the  art  of  con- 
trol.    He  so  conducts  the  opening  exercises  as  to  in- 
terest the  pupils  and  inspire  all  good  impulses.     He 
so  manages  the  school  discipline  as  to  develop  habits 
of  law-abiding  self-control.     He  so  directs  the  study 
work  as  to  teach  pupils  to  find  out  and  master  things 
for  themselves.     The  conduct  lessons  lead  to  higher 
ideals  and  better  habits.     The  oral  lessons  in  general 
history  impress  the  best  things  in  the  lives  of  individ- 
uals and  nations.     History  and  literature  are  the  great 
conduct  studies.     Civics  is  so   presented  as  to  help 
prepare  for  good  citizenship.     Easy  mind  lessons  lead 
to  experimental  self-knowledge. 

5.  The  Language-Literature  Teacher  is  a  Special- 
ist in  Language  and  Literature.     This  group  of  stud- 
ies, next  to  conduct,  is   the   most   important  study 
group.     The  pupils  are  taught  how  to  read  and  what 
to  read.     The  taste  for  choice  literature  is  cultivated, 
and  each  pupil  is  led  to  spend  one  or  two  hours  daily 
in  reading  the  best  juvenile  books.     The  pupils  learn 


268  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

to  speak  and  write  correctly  and  well.  The  room  is 
fitted  up  with  the  best  helps  for  teaching  language 
and  literature. 

6.  The  Science  Teacher  is  a  Specialist  in  the  In- 
termediate Sciences.      She  skilfully  leads  her  pupils 
to  find  out  for  themselves.     Geography,  the  science 
of  man's  environments,  is  the  leading  subject  of  this 
group.      Biology  blends  naturally  with   geography. 
Practical  lessons  in  physiology  and  hygiene  are  made 
a  part  of  the  work  in  biology.     Easy  oral  lessons  in 
physics  and  astronomy  complete  the  work  in  the  inter- 
mediate science  group.     The  science  room  is  fitted  up 
with  the  best  helps  in  science  teaching. 

7.  The  Mathematics  Teacher  is  a  Specialist  in 
Mathematics.     During  four  years  each  pupil  devotes 
one  study  and  one  recitation  period  daily  to  the  math- 
ematics studies.     Mental  and  written  arithmetic  are 
so  taught  as  to  develop  power  and  become  practically 
helpful.     The  weekly  lesson  in  concrete  geometry  is 
made  of  great  value.     Arithmetic  almost  impercep- 
tibly becomes  algebra.     Pupils  are  led  to  use  arith- 
metic in  easy  oral  bookkeeping.     The  teacher  studies 
to  make  the  mathematic  lessons  a  unit  with  the  les- 
sons in  the  other  study  groups.     The  mathematics 
room  is  fitted  up  with  the  best  helps  for  teaching  these 
studies. 

8.  The  Art  Teacher  is  a  Specialist  in  the  Interme- 
diate School  Arts.     Physical  culture,  writing,  draw- 
ing, vocal  music,  and  manual  training  make  up  the 
art  group.      In  the  kindergarten   and  the    primary 
school  the  pupils  have  made  considerable  progress  in 
these  arts.     Boys  and  girls  must  be  given  more  ad- 


SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS.       269 

vanced  work.  The  art  room  and  the  art  work  em- 
phasize grace  and  beauty  as  well  as  unity.  This  room 
is  liberally  supplied  with  helps  for  teaching  the  inter- 
mediate school  arts. 

9.  The  Intermediate  Work  is  ikwoughly  Corre- 
lated and  Proportioned.  "  Grade  teachers  unduly 
press  their  favourite  studies.  Will  not  the  danger 
of  inequality  be  still  greater  in  the  specialized  inter- 
mediate ?  Will  not  the  strong  teachers  absorb  pupil 
energies  ?  Will  not  a  "  hustler  "  get  the  pupils  to  de- 
vote nine  tenths  of  their  energies  to  science  \ "  This 
is  a  real  danger,  but  there  is  safety  in  the  interme- 
diate faculty  for  both  the  unspecialized  grammar 
school  and  the  specialized  intermediate.  Each  inter- 
mediate specialist  is  familiar  with  all  the  intermediate 
studies.  At  the  weekly  meetings  the  interrelation  of 
studies  is  discussed.  The  psychology  of  boyhood  and 
girlhood  is  made  a  special  study.  Plans  for  securing 
the  best  work  in  each  group  of  studies  in  each  of  the 
eight  intermediate  classes  are  considered  with  great 
care.  The  vital  feature  of  the  new  intermediate,  how 
to  make  the  work  of  all  the  specialists  supplement 
and  re-enforce  the  work  of  each,  is  profoundly  consid- 
ered. At  the  beginning  of  each  month  each  special- 
ist prepares  an  outline  of  his  work  for  the  month, 
and  furnishes  a  copy  to  each  of  his  cospecialists. 
This  enables  each  member  of  the  faculty  to  work  in 
the  light  of  the  work  done  by  each.  Though  a  spe- 
cialist, each  intermediate  teacher  becomes  broad  and 
liberal.  All  come  to  see  good  in  the  work  of  each. 
No  one  even  desires  to  unduly  press  his  special  work. 
The  entire  work  is  proportioned  and  unitized. 


270  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

SOME  OF  THE  BENEFITS  OF  SPECIALIZING  THE 
INTERMEDIATE  WORK. 

At  what  stage  of  pupil  growth  should  specializa- 
tion begin  ?  No  one  even  thinks  of  primary  special- 
ization except  in  art.  High-school  specialization  is 
now  an  accomplished  fact,  and  no  educator  calls  in 
question  the  astonishing  advantages  resulting.  Many 
are  now  asking,  "  Is  it  well  to  specialize  the  interme- 
diate work  ?  "  Naturally,  the  educational  world  in  our 
times  gives  a  negative  response.  The  Committee  of 
Fifteen  assures  us  that  up  to  the  seventh  grade  it  is 
better,  on  the  whole,  to  have  each  teacher  instruct  her 
pupils  in  all  the  branches  that  they  study.  Col.  F.  W. 
Parker  insists  that  concentration  is  utterly  opposed  to 
specialization.  These  utterances  voice  the  present  po- 
sition of  our  most  progressive  educators.  Still,  the 
author  ventures  to  plead  for  the  re-examination  of  the 
question  and  for  the  test  of  actual  trial.  Child  study 
has  made  the  kindergarten  and  the  new  primary  pos- 
sible and  popular.  The  earnest  study  of  boyhood  and 
girlhood,  it  is  believed,  will  make  the  ideal  specialized, 
intermediate,  possible,  and  universal.  Let  us  put  the 
experiment  to  the  test.  We  can  afford  to  wait  a  dec- 
ade or  two  while  the  experiment  is  being  tried,  and 
while  intermediate  specialization  is  passing  through 
the  stages  of  ridicule  and  discussion  and  adoption. 

1.  Nothing  is  lost  by  Intermediate  Specialization. 
All  that  is  best  in  the  old  is  retained  in  the  new.  The 
change  comes  as  a  growth ;  it  is  the  natural  evolution 
of  the  classified  and  graded  primary  school  into  the 
classified,  graded,  and  specialized  intermediate  school. 


SPECIALIZED  INTBBM 


As  progressive  educators  here  and  there  establish  spe- 
cialized intermediate  schools,  and  as  the  great  advan- 
tages of  specialization  come  to  be  realized,  the  new 
school  buildings  will  be  planned  in  view  of  intermedi- 
ate specialization,  gifted  teachers  will  thoroughly  pre- 
pare themselves  to  teach  special  groups  of  closely  re- 
lated subjects,  and  our  old  graded  grammar  schools 
will  gradually  be  transformed  into  the  new  specialized 
intermediate  schools. 

2.  Even  the  Financial  Gain  will  ~be  Large.    In  the 
graded  grammar  school  forty  pupils  to  the  teacher  is 
the  limit  of  efficiency.     In  the  specialized  intermedi- 
ate, division  of  work  enables  the  teachers  to  do  vastly 
better  work  with  sixty  pupils  to  the  teacher.     Even 
when  the  salaries  shall  be  so  advanced  as  to  com- 
mand gifted  specialists  the  financial  gain  will  be  con- 
siderable. 

3.  Specialization  will  give  us  Male  as  well  as  Fe- 
male Intermediate  Teachers.   The  educational  gain  by 
having  an  equal  number  of  male  and  female  teachers  in 
our  intermediate  work  is  simply  incalculable.     At  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  more  than  ninety 
per  cent  of  all  our  teachers  were  men ;  at  its  close, 
nearly  ninety  per  cent  are  women.     Our  kindergar- 
ten and  primary  teachers  are  women ;  it  is  well.     But 
in   all   schools   above    the    primary   about    half   the 
teachers  should  be  men ;  all  educators  so  teach ;  the 
specialized  intermediate  will  certainly  tend  to  secure 
this  boon  for  our  intermediate  schools. 

4.  Specialization  looks  to  Individual  Aptitudes. 
The  special  teachers  are  quick  to  discover  the  mental 
trends  of  the  boys  and  girls.     Gifts  are  wisely  cher- 


272  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

ished,  and  each  pupil  is  led  to  do  bis  best  along  the 
lines  of  bis  inherited  tendencies.  Each  teacher  has 
the  same  pupils  for  four  years,  and  leads  them  on 
without  a  break  during  this  period.  Each  pupil  is 
treated  as  an  individual  and  as  a  friend.  The  best  in 
the  class  plan  and  the  best  in  the  individual  plan 
are  combined.  The  fearful  waste  occasioned  by  the 
annual  change  from  teacher  to  teacher  is  avoided. 
The  educational  gain  is  immense. 

5.  Specialization  will  give  us  Professional  Inter- 
mediate Teachers.    Division  of  work  easily  quadruples 
the  efficiency  of  the  teacher.    Relieved  of  the  incubus 
of  discipline  and  of  the  killing  drudgery  of  attempting 
to  prepare  and  teach  all  the  lessons  in  all  the  studies, 
each  teacher  becomes  a  master  workman  in  one  group 
of  studies.      These    specialists    become    professional 
teachers   and   hold    their    positions    during  efficient 
work.      Intermediate    specialization   will    triple    the 
army  of  professional  teachers,  and  will  give  impetus 
to  our  educational  work. 

6.  The  Specialized  Intermediate  will  greatly  ad- 
vance Physical  Culture.     The  art  teacher  first  of  all 
devotes  herself  to  the  art  of  hygienic  living.    For  four 
years  she  leads  the  pupils  to  root  hygienic  laws  into 
hygienic  habits.     In  this  she  has  the  earnest  co-opera- 
tion of  all  the  other  teachers.     Physical  culture  is  no 
longer  incidental,  but  is  made  a  special  and  leading 
study.     No  one  now  questions  the  great  gain  of  hav- 
ing a  specialist  to  teach  music,  drawing,  and  manual 
training. 

7.  Specialization  will  do  most  to  promote  Moral 
Education.    The  intermediate  principal  is  a  specialist 


SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS.       273 

in  the  art  of  character  growth.  His  group  of  studies 
look  to  character  building.  For  four  years  he  leads 
his  pupils  up  to  higher  ideals  and  higher  realizations. 
In  conduct  culture  each  teacher  supplements  and  re- 
enforces  the  work  of  the  principal.  Here  we  have 
the  superlative  of  the  new  education.  Conduct  cul- 
ture ceases  to  be  merely  incidental,  and  takes  its  place 
as  the  leading  work  of  the  school. 

8.  Specialization  will  benefit  Intermediate  Pu- 
pils. It  is  a  safe  estimate  that  a  day  in  a  specialized 
intermediate  will  help  the  pupil  more  than  two  days 
in  the  old  grammar  school.  Skilled  specialists  stimu- 
late and  guide  effort,  and  each  room  is  fitted  for  the 
best  work  in  a  special  group  of  studies.  Pupils  be- 
come vastly  better  prepared  to  go  out  into  life  as  well 
as  for  high-school  work.  The  tendency  undoubtedly 
will  be  to  keep  the  boys  as  well  as  the  girls  in  school 
until  they  complete  the  course ;  and  it  is  a  reasonable 
estimate  that  the  number  who  will  go  up  higher  will 
be  quadrupled. 

The  grade  grammar  school  has  worked  out  satis- 
factorily the  problems  of  organization  and  promotion. 
The  specialized  intermediate  school  is  a  higher  evolu- 
tion, and  is  destined  to  solve  the  problems  of  efficient 
intermediate-school  work.  It  is  believed  that  all  the 
objections  to  this  advance  that  have  been  urged  or  can 
be  urged  will  disappear  in  view  of  the  immense  gains. 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT    THROUGH    SPECIALIZED    AND 
CORRELATED    HIGH    SCHOOLS. 

SCHOOLS  connecting  the  elementary  schools  and  the 
colleges  are  called  secondary  schools.  These  schools 
are  known  as  high  schools,  academies,  seminaries,  and 
preparatory  schools.  In  this  country  the  high  school 
is  the  public  secondary  school.  Our  fathers  were  con- 
tent with  elementary  education,  but  in  our  times  the 
masses  find  the  secondary  education  a  necessity. 
Trained  minds  are  demanded  by  our  civilization  in 
all  fields  of  human  activity.  The  high  school  is  now 
an  essential  part  of  the  common-school  system. 

The  High  School  prepares  for  Life. — Youth  is  emi- 
nently the  seedtime  of  life.  The  high  school  gives 
the  culture,  gives  the  knowledge,  and  gives  the  in- 
spiration that  make  for  complete  living.  Invincible 
youth  learns  the  art  of  mastery.  The  high  school 
prepares  the  youth  reasonably  well  for  the  practical 
life  of  our  times.  We  do  not,  it  is  true,  train  high- 
school  pupils  for  special  vocations ;  but  we  do  develop 
the  strongest  individuality,  honesty,  truthfulness,  jus- 
tice, generosity,  attentive  intelligence,  thoughtful  hub- 
its  of  industry,  and  persevering  power  of  application  ; 
and  this  training  is  the  best  possible  preparation  for 
practical  life. 

The  High  School  prepares  for  College, — In  all  arenas 
of  high  endeavour,  and  in  all  fields  of  high  achieve- 
ment, a  college  education  conditions  the  highest  sue- 


CORRELATED  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  275 

cess.  More  and  more,  in  all  the  walks  of  life,  our 
youth  realize  the  importance  of  preparing  themselves 
for  college.  The  high  school  is  the  natural  link  con- 
necting the  elementary  schools  and  the  colleges.  It 
has  heretofore  been  the  missing  link  in  our  educa- 
tional systems.  In  the  future  the  great  body  of  col- 
lege students  will  come  up  from  our  high  schools; 
hence  our  colleges  must  be  adjusted  to  our  high 
schools.  We  study  to  make  our  elementary  schools 
the  best  possible  for  the  elementary  pupils,  and  adjust 
the  high  school  to  the  elementary  school ;  we  study  to 
make  the  high  school  the  best  possible  for  the  high- 
school  pupils,  and  adjust  the  college  to  the  high  school ; 
we  study  to  make  the  college  the  best  possible  for  the 
college  students,  and  adjust  the  university  professional 
schools  to  the  college.  Thus  we  create  the  educa- 
tional highway  leading  from  the  nursery  to  the  uni- 
versity. We  build  on  the  rock. 

The  High  School  is  the  Latest  to  develop.— The 
centuries  first  of  all  gave  the  world  the  college  and 
much  later  the  elementary  school.  The  present  great 
forward  educational  movement  is  to  make  the  special- 
ized and  correlated  high  school  coextensive  with  the 
elementary  school.  The  high  school  is  now  an  ac- 
complished fact  in  our  towns  and  cities.  By  placing 
well-conducted  high  schools  within  the  easy  reach  of 
all  our  youths  we  will  do  most  for  the  elevation  of 
the  race.  The  central  schools  in  our  rural  districts 
under  wise  management  will  naturally  grow  into  dis- 
trict high  schools,  and  thus  a  high-school  education 
within  the  reach  of  all  homes  will  be  made  possible 
and  inviting. 


276  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

The  High  School  is  Sui  generis. — To  conduct  high 
schools  as  higher  grammar  schools  or  lower  colleges 
is  a  fundamental  mistake,  leading  to  arrested  develop- 
ment and  driving  our  boys  prematurely  into  active 
life.  The  elementary  school  adjusts  the  world  to  the 
pupil,  the  high-school  pupil  adjusts  himself  to  the 
world,  but  the  college  student  adjusts  the  world  to 
himself.  We  use  all  devices  to  help  the  feeble  begin- 
ners to  grasp  the  elements  of  knowledge;  we  lead 
the  vigorous  youth  on  to  mastery ;  we  inspire  the 
strong  college  student  to  achieve.  The  high  school  is 
for  youth.  In  its  facilities,  its  organization,  its  work 
and  its  methods  it  must  be  adapted  to  youth.  The 
specialized  and  correlated  high  school  is  unique. 

Youth  is  a  Marvellous  Stage  of  Development. — The 
high-school  teacher  studies  with  boundless  interest 
this  period  of  human  growth.  About  the  fourteenth 
year  there  comes  the  stupendous  change  from  boy- 
hood and  girlhood  to  youth.  There  is  almost  a  leap 
in  both  the  physical  and  mental  life.  The  emotions 
become  tempestuous,  and  the  youth  seems  impelled  by 
mighty  subjective  energies.  Lofty  aspirations  and 
irrepressible  yearnings  for  noble  things  begin  to  sway 
the  young  life.  Egoism  gives  place  to  altruism.  Duty 
impulses  become  imperative  and  the  religious  emo- 
tions are  awakened.  "Will  asserts  its  sovereignty,  and 
a  youth  must  do  or  die.  The  imitative  activity  of 
the  boy  becomes  the  creative  activity  of  the  youth. 
Action  is  salvation  ;  inaction  means  physical,  mental, 
and  moral  death.  From  the  fourteenth  to  the  eight- 
eenth year  is  peculiarly  the  formative  period  in  hu- 
man life.  During  these  seething,  restless,  melancholy 


CORRELATED  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  277 

years  the  trend  is  given  that  leads  to  eminence.  We 
study  to  create  high  schools  adapted  to  youth — schools 
that  will  utilize  the  broad  sympathies,  the  generous 
impulses,  the  high  aspirations,  and  the  boundless  en- 
ergies of  youth. 

The  Evolution  of  the  High  School  is  a  Story  that  in- 
terests all  the  World. — The  high  school  having  passed 
through  the  stages  of  individualism,  classification,  and 
grading,  has  now  reached  the  stage  of  specialization. 
Tutorism,  college  preparatories,  academies,  seminaries, 
were  some  of  the  diversified  forms  of  individualism  and 
classification.  Grading  was  hailed  as  a  panacea ;  the 
ninth,  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  grades  of  our  city 
schools  became  the  high  school.  Each  grade  had  its 
teacher,  and  the  high  school  was  merely  a  higher  gram- 
mar school.  Arrested  development  was  the  inevitable 
result.  Some  belated  high  schools  are  still  at  this  stage 
of  evolution.  Happily,  some  educational  Edison  of 
our  own  times  suggested  high-school  specialization. 
The  best  in  individualism  and  classification  and  grad- 
ing are  carried  up  into  specialization.  Our  ideal  high- 
school  teacher  is  a  college  graduate,  a  trained  profes- 
sional educator,  and  a  specialist  in  a  group  of  high-school 
studies.  Our  ideal  high-school  faculty  is  a  teaching  unit. 
Our  ideal  high  school  is  specialized  and  correlated. 
Partial  departmental  teaching  will  come  as  a  growth. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

1.  The  High-School  Building  is  Unique.  We 
create  our  ideal  high  school  and  construct  our  ideal 
high-school  building  around  it.  Each  special  teacher 
has  a  room  fitted  up  for  his  special  work.  The  work- 


278  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

ing  library  and  the  necessary  apparatus  are  essentials. 
Assistant  teachers  have  their  classrooms  fitted  up  for 
special  work.  Since  laboratory  methods  must  more 
and  more  dominate  in  high-school  work,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  our  high-school  buildings  should  be  planned 
and  equipped  with  this  in  view. 

2.  High-School  Organization  is  Unique.     Grades 
evolve  into  groups  capable  of  working  together.    The 
specialized  intermediate  work  grows  into  the  special- 
ized high-school  work,  and  the  specialized  high-school 
work  grows  into  the  specialized  college  work.     But 
the  high-school  work  is  unique  and  requires  a  unique 
organism.     It  is  a  ruinous  mistake  to  think  of  the 
high  school  as  a  lower  college  or  a  higher  intermedi- 
ate.    We  study  youth  and  create  schools  adapted  to 
this  stage  of  education. 

3.  The  High  School  considers  Years.     The  group- 
ing is  easy.     Pupils  who  are  doing  the  first,  second, 
third,  and  fourth  years'  work  are  grouped  as  D's,  C's, 
B's,  and  A's.     The  sections  of  these  groups  are  desig- 
nated as  D1,  D2,  D8;   C1,  C2,  C3,  etc.     This  is  all. 
However  small  or  however  large  the  high  school  may 
be,  this  simple  scheme  answers  every  purpose.    Grades 
are  for  the  elementary  schools,  and  all  such  epithets 
as  freshman,  sophomore,  junior,  and  senior  are  left  to 

,  the  college.  The  high-school  pupil  is  doing  the  first 
year's  work,  and  is  a  D ;  or  the  second  year's  work, 
and  is  a  C  ;  or  the  third  year's  work,  and  is  a  B ;  or 
the  fourth  year's  work,  and  is  an  A. 

4:.  The  Larger  High  Schools  have  Two  Graduating 
Classes  annually.  The  pupils  that  become  A's  at 
the  first  of  the  year  graduate  at  the  middle  of  the  year, 


CORRELATED  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  279 

but  pupils  that  become  A's  at  the  middle  of  the  year 
graduate  at  the  middle  of  the  succeeding  year.  Our 
smaller  high  schools  can  have  but  one  graduating  class 
annually,  and  so  must  give  the  pupils  who  complete 
the  intermediate  work  at  the  middle  of  the  year  a 
half-year's  vacation  before  admitting  them. 

5.  High-School  Pupils  advance  with  their  Classes. 
When  his  work  is  satisfactory  a  pupil  is  promoted 
with  his  class.     Individuals  found  well  prepared  for 
advanced  work  are  promoted  at  once  by  the  faculty.  As 
a  rule,  it  is  best  to  give  bright  pupils  collateral  work 
and  so  have  them  advance  with  their  classes.     Here 
and  everywhere  preparedness  to  work  with  the  next 
group  is  the  condition  of  promotion. 

6.  High-School  Work  is  prescribed.     The  college 
student  under  guidance  elects  his  studies,  but  the 
high-school  pupil  pursues  the  prescribed  studies.    This 
limitation  is  wise,  for  immature  youths  are  not  prepared 
to  elect  judiciously,  nor  can  our  smaller  high  schools 
afford   to  sustain  elective  courses.     Our  larger  high 
schools  offer  four  courses,  but  the  studies  are  substan- 
tially the  same  in  all  the  groups  except  in  that  of  lan- 
guage and  literature.     Our  smaller  high  schools  can 
sustain  but  one  course.     The  faculty,  however,  adapts 
the  work  to  the  pupils. 

HIGH-SCHOOL  STUDY  GROUPS. 

1.  The  High  School  prepares  for  Life.  Prepa- 
ration for  complete  living  is  the  ultimate  educational 
end.  The  immediate  purposes  in  school  work  are  de- 
velopment of  power  and  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
The  aims  of  the  high  schools  are  to  prepare  for  life 


280  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

and  also  prepare  for  college.  Studies  best  calculated 
to  develop  power  and  prepare  for  life  should  also  best 
prepare  for  college.  Most  of  our  high-school  pupils 
do  not  go  higher,  but  pass  from  the  high  school  di- 
rectly into  active  life.  Clearly  the  work  must  be 
made  the  best  possible  for  the  many,  and  at  the  same 
time  best  fit  the  few  for  college. 

2.  Correlation  of  High-School  Studies  is  Funda- 
mental. Grouping  the  subjects  taught  is  an  incal- 
culable gain,  but  it  is  still  more  important  to  further 
co-ordinate  the  entire  work  so  far  as  this  can  be  done 
naturally  and  logically.  Unrelated  knowledge  hurts 
and  does  not  help.  The  legitimate  correlation  of  sub- 
jects is  fundamental.  The  natural  and  practical  group- 
ing of  school  studies  and  the  wise  concentration  of 
school  work  are  leading  problems  of  our  times.  The 
prolonged  study  of  a  few  subjects  is  every  way  better 
than  the  brief  study  of  many  subjects.  This  educational 
axiom  limits  selections  from  each  group  to  the  best 
things.  Good  teaching  enriches  and  broadens  the  course. 

C  School     discipline,    investigation,    re- 
Conduct  search. 
Group  of  Studies.  1  General  and  special  history,  civics. 

L  Practical  ethics,  elementary  psychology. 

Language-        (  Written  and  oral  expression. 


O 


£  - 


literature         •<  English  language  and  literature. 
Group  of  Studies.  (  Foreign  languages  and  literatures. 

Mathematics      t  ^^T£ic' ?JF^[?' 


f 


Bookkeeping. 

Physical  geography,  oral  astronomy. 


Science  I   Elementary  biology,  elementary  p'hysi- 

Group  of  Studies,  j       ology. 

[  Elementary  physics,  oral  chemistry. 

Art  (  Physical  culture,  manual  training. 

Group  of  Studies.  (  Drawing,  vocal  music. 


CORRELATED  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  2S1 

3.  The  Group  Order  is  thought  to  le  Reasonable. 
Educative  value  is  made  the  test.  "What  group  of 
studies  has  the  highest  educative  value  ? 


The  above  group  order,  it  is  thought,  will  bear  all 
reasonable  tests.  We  think  of  the  educative  work 
in  each  group  of  studies.  We  may  consider  growth 
from  the  physical  standpoint,  and  make  development 
of  brain  areas  the  test.  Each  study  awakens,  strength- 
ens, develops  special  brain  areas.  The  study  group 
that  exercises  the  highest  and  the  widest  brain  areas 
ranks  highest.  The  above  group  order,  it  is  thought, 
conforms  to  the  brain-area  test.  School  work  is  made 
the  test.  The  above  group  order  is  eminently  prac- 
tical, and  seems  to  be  the  best  for  school  purposes. 
Fellow-teacher,  please  read  carefully  once  more,  as  sup- 
plementing this  paragraph,  Correlation  of  Studies  by 
the  Fifteen,  and  Secondary  School  Studies  by  the  Ten. 

THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

1.  The  Study  Groups  are  here  expressed  in  Years. 
The  work  in  each  group  for  each  of  the  four  high- 
school  years  is  outlined.     The  larger  high  schools, 
with  six  or  more   teachers,  can   sustain  more  than 
one  prescribed  course.     But,  except  in  foreign  lan- 
guages, our  well-organized  high  schools,  small  as  well 
as  large,  do  substantially  the  same  work. 

2.  Each  of  the  Five  Study   Groups  is  counted 
of  Great  Educative  Value.     The  language-literature 
group,  however,  is  given  double  the  recitation  time 
of  the  other  periods.     English  is  considered  the  natu- 


282  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


ral  equivalent  of  conduct,  of  mathematics,  of  science, 
of  art,  and  the  work  in  foreign  languages  and  litera- 
ture may  be  made  equal  to  the  work  in  English. 

Course  of  Study  for  the  Smaller  High  Schools. 


Yean. 

Study  groups 

Subject*. 

Period*. 

I  year, 

Conduct. 
Language-lit- 
erature. 

Practical  ethics,  general  history,  civics. 
J  Literature,  grammar,  rhetoric,  expression. 
|  Latin  or  German  or  French. 

5 
5 
5 

Classes 

Science. 

Physical  geography,  biology. 

5 

D»,  D". 

Mathematics. 

Arithmetic,  algebra,  concrete  geometry. 

5 

Art. 

Physical  culture,  vocal  music,  drawing,  man- 

5 

n 

Conduct. 
Language-lit- 
erature. 

Practical  ethics,  general  history,  civics. 
I  Literature,  grammar,  rhetoric,  expression. 
j  Latin  or  German  or  French. 

5 
5 
5 

Classes 
C1,  C3. 

Science. 
Mathematics. 
Art. 

Biology,  physics,  physiology. 
Algebra,  geometry,  bookkeeping. 
Physical  culture,  vocal  music,  drawing,  man- 

5 
5 

ual  training. 

5 

Conduct. 

Elementary  psychology,  English   history, 

CIVICS. 

5 

m 

year, 
Classes 
B1,  B«. 

Language-lit- 
erature. 
Science. 
Mathematics. 

j  Literature,  composition,  expression. 
1  Latin  or  German  or  French. 
Biology,  physics,  physiology. 
Geometry,  bookkeeping. 

5 
5 
5 
5 

Art. 

Physical  culture,  vocal  music,  drawing,  man- 

ual training. 

5 

Conduct. 

Elementary  psychology,  American  history, 

CIVICS. 

5 

IV 

Language-lit- 
erature. 

j  Literature,  composition,  expression. 
"f  Latin  or  German  or  French. 

5 
5 

Classes 
A»,  A3. 

Science. 
Mathematics. 

Physics,    chemistry,    biology,    physiology, 
oral  astronomy. 
Trigonometry,  geometry. 

5 
5 

Art. 

Physical  culture,  vocal  music,  drawing,  man- 

ual training. 

5 

3.  Each  Special  Teacher  Outlines  his  Work.  In 
the  general  high-school  course  for  the  smaller  high 
schools  details  are  omitted.  It  is  left  to  each  high- 
school  faculty  to  complete  the  outline.  The  require- 


CORRELATED  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  283 

ments  are  well  defined.  The  plan  of  each  specialist 
is  discussed  and  approved  by  the  faculty.  No  study 
group  must  dominate ;  there  must  be  proportion  and 
correlation.  No  study  in  a  group  must  be  made  to 
exclude  the  other  studies. 

4.  Partial  Departmental  Teaching.  In  the  larger 
high  schools  each  group  teacher  becomes  the  head  of 
a  department,  and  with  his  assistants  constitutes  a  fac- 
ulty group  or  a  department.  In  the  future  the  legiti- 
mate department  teaching  will  greatly  improve  the 
high-school  work. 

SUGGESTIVE  PROGRAMMES  FOR  THE  SMALLER  HIGH 
SCHOOLS. 

1.  The  Conditions  determine  the  Real  Programme. 
The  number  of  teachers  in  our  smaller  high  schools 
varies  from  two  to  six,  and  the  number  of  pupils  from 
thirty  to  two  hundred  and  forty.  Schools  with  more 
than  six  teachers  and  more  than  two  hundred  and 
forty  pupils  take  rank  as  our  larger  high  schools. 
Each  high  school  adapts  its  course  of  study  and  its 
programme  to  its  conditions.  The  group  teachers  are 
the  same  in  all,  but  in  the  larger  schools  each  group 
teacher  has  one  or  more  assistants.  The  ideal  pro- 
gramme for  the  smaller  high  schools  is  submitted  as 
suggestive.  The  building,  the  number  and  advance- 
ment of  the  pupils,  and  the  number  of  teachers,  must 
determine  the  actual  programme  of  the  school.  The 
ideal  programme  is  for  an  established  high  school 
having  a  suitable  building,  having  about  two  hun- 
dred pupils,  and  having  five  teachers.  The  language- 
literature  teacher  will  need  an  assistant. 


284  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

2.  The  Ideal  Programme  must  be  counted  as  Sug- 
gestive.    It  is  a  work  of  art  to  create  a  good  school 
programme.     Each  high-school  faculty  must  necessa- 
rily construct  its  own  programme.     The  number  of 
possible  good  programmes  for  a  specialized  high  school 
with  five  or  more  teachers  is  practically  unlimited. 
Each  pupil  has  six  daily  recitations.     The  work  is  so 
planned  that  a  pupil  will  recite  daily  three  prepared 
lessons  and  have  two  or  three  drill  recitations. 

3.  Each  Teacher  conducts  Seven  Recitations  daily. 
As  each  teacher  has  eight  classes,  and  as  we  have  but 
seven  recitation  periods,  each  teacher  must  have  one 
combined  recitation,  or  must  manage  to  have  a  pupil 
assistant  teach  one  of  his  classes. 

4.  The  Recess  of  Ten  Minutes  between  Classes  is 
of  Great  Value.     The  utmost  freedom  consistent  with 
good  conduct  is  desirable  during  the  recesses.     Com- 
plete relaxation  is  encouraged,  but  each  youth  studies 
propriety.     Each  teacher  is  given  one  hour  a  day  to 
visit  the  intermediate  classes.     Thus  the  high  school 
is  kept  in  close  touch  with  the  intermediate  work. 

5.  Special    Programmes    are    Essential.     Each 
teacher  has  the  pupils  in  his  group  of  studies  for  four 
years;  he  makes  his  special  programme  to  suit  his 
work.     These  special  programmes  are  submitted  to 
the  faculty  for  approval,  but  each  teacher  is  given 
almost  unlimited  freedom.     A  high  school  is  an  edu- 
cational unit,  and  each  teacher  plans  his  work  in  view 
of  all  the  work. 

6.  High  Schools  with  Three  or  Four  Teachers  make 
Programmes  to  suit  Conditions.    In  these  schools  each 
teacher  is  a  specialist  in  one  group  and  is  charged  with 


CORRELATED  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


285 


work  in  other  groups.  The  work  and  the  recitation 
periods  are  the  same,  but  the  pupils  are  arranged  in 
four  instead  of  eight  groups,  and  the  step  between 
the  classes  is  a  year  instead  of  half  a  year.  The  class 
promotions  occur  at  the  close  and  not  at  the  middle 
of  the  year.  The  programme  is  made  accordingly. 

Suggestive  Programme  for  a  Specialized  High  School. 


PERIODS 

CONDUCT 

ENGLISH 

LANGUAGE 

MATHEMATICS 

SCIENCE 

ART 

CLOS-TIME 

STUDY 

RECITE 

9.40 

40 

D^2 

A1 

B1 

A2 

B2 

C'C2 

9.50 

10 

RECESS 

10.30 

40 

B3 

A1  A2 

C1 

C2 

D1 

D2 

Bl 

10.40 

10 

RECESS 

11.20 

40 

A1  A2  a2] 

BaB2 

C1 

D2 

D1 

11.30 

10 

RECESS 

12.10 

40 

D2 

B'B2 

A2 

Dl 

C2 

C  2 

A1 

12.40 

30 

NOON   RECESS 

1.20 

40 

B1  B2 

D2    . 

A1  A2 

C2 

C1 

U1 

1.30 

10 

RECESS 

2.10 

40 

D'A2 

C^C2 

B2 

A1 

B» 

D2 

2.20 

10 

RECESS 

3.00 

40 

AVc'j 

D1 

D2 

B1    B2 

A2 

3.10 

10 

RECESS 

3.50 

40 

B1^ 

D^2 

C2 

A1  A2 

B2 

Explanations. — 1.  The  school  has  five  special  teach- 
ers and  an  assistant  in  literature.  Each  teacher  con- 
ducts seven  recitations,  thus  meeting  all  the  pupils 
daily.  Each  pupil  has  six  recitations  daily,  three  or 
four  prepared  lessons  and  two  or  three  drill  lessons. 
2.  Forty-minute  recitation  periods  are  found  most 


286  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

satisfactory  in  high-school  work.  The  recess  of  ten 
minutes  between  recitations  is  simply  invaluable.  3. 
All  movements  of  the  school  are  regulated  by  electric 
bells.  The  electric  clock  literally  calls  and  dismisses 
all  classes.  4.  On  Saturdays  each  class  spends  two 
hours  in  laboratory  or  manual  training  work. 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  FACULTY. 

1.  The  High-School   Faculty  is  an  Educative 
Unit.    Correlation  is  vital.    The  work  of  each  teacher 
is  supplemented  and  re-enforced  by  the  work  of  all 
the  other  teachers.     At  the  beginning  of  each  month 
each  teacher  hands  his  co workers  an  outline  of  his 
proposed  work  for  the  month.     These  outlines  are 
examined  at  the  faculty  meetings  ;  they  enable  each 
teacher  to  co-ordinate  his  work  with  the  work  of  the 
other  teachers.     Unity  is  secured. 

2.  The  Five  Specialists  direct  the  Work.     Each 
teacher  is  a  college  graduate  and  a  graduate  of  a  school 
of   pedagogy.     Each  has  made  special    preparations 
to  teach  a  special  group  of  studies.     Each  is  elected 
because  of  his  fitness  for  special  work.     Each  studies 
his  own  work  in  view  of  all  the  work.     Each  is  a  stu- 
dent of  pupil  nature,  and  studies  to  adapt  his  work  to 
his  growing  pupils.     Unity,  harmony,  and  skill  are 
secured. 

3.  The  High-School  Principal  Unitizes  the  Faculty 
and  the  Work.     He  is  always  a  professional  educator 
and  a  specialist  in  the  conduct  studies.     He  gives  his 
best  energies  to  training  his  pupils  to  habits  of  self- 
control,  self-reliance,  and  efficient  work.     During  the 


CORRELATED  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  287 

first  and  second  years  he  uses  practical  ethics  as  the 
basis  of  his  conduct  lessons,  and  during  the  third  and 
fourth  years  these  lessons  are  given  in  connection 
with  elementary  psychology.  The  pupil  is  led  to 
study  the  individual  self  and  the  larger  social  self. 
History  and  civics  are  so  studied  as  to  re-enforce  the 
conduct  lessons  and  lead  up  to  a  life  of  duty.  These 
are  made  pre-eminently  conduct  studies.  The  princi- 
pal plans  to  co-ordinate  the  work  of  all  the  teachers. 
In  a  town  of  ten  thousand  inhabitants  or  less  the 
high-school  principal  is  supervising  principal  of  all 
the  schools.  The  ideal  programme  gives  him  four 
periods  daily  for  teaching  and  three  for  supervision. 
Through  the  primary  and  intermediate  principals  he 
directs  the  work  of  the  primary  and  intermediate 
schools,  and  through  the  visits  of  his  special  teachers 
he  constantly  reaches  all  the  grades.  He  is,  indeed, 
the  principal  teacher. 

4.  The  High-School  Faculty  Meetings  are  of  Vital 
Interest.     Each  teacher  studies  the  work  of  all  the 
teachers  and  becomes  broad  and  liberal.     The  faculty 
discussions  and  studies  are  the  antidote  to  the  nar- 
rowness of  the  mere  specialist.     Advanced  pedagog- 
ical studies  receive  large  attention.     The  high-school 
teacher  is  a  growing  educator. 

5.  The  High-School  Work  demands  Men  as  well 
as  Women.     The  sexes  should  be  equally  represented 
in   the   high-school   faculty.     The   predominance   of 
either  sex  in   high-school   faculties  is  considered  a 
fundamental  educational  blunder.     The  teachers  must 
be  men  as  well  as  women  who  know  life  and  who  can 
deeply  interest  the  pupils  in  the  living  present. 


288   SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

"  High-school  education,  if  the  unjust  charge  were  true,  that  it 
kept  youth  away  from  the  interests  of  life  and  made  him  insensi- 
ble to  its  pulsations  because  it  locks  him  up  in  the  world  of  the 
past  and  of  scholastic  and  unreal  abstraction,  would  indeed  tend 
to  unfit  for  life  and  be  a  failure.  The  opposite  course  is  the 
one  which  the  high  school  should  pursue  with  the  graduate  of  the 
elementary  school.  It  should  aim  at  bringing  him  into  the  closest 
touch  with  the  highest  interests  of  current  life,  and  to  fill  him 
with  a  strong  desire  for  activity  in  the  world  of  reality. 

"  During  the  years  that  a  pupil  is  in  the  high  school  the  saying 
of  Terence  should  apply  to  him,  'He  is  a  man,  anfl  nothing  that 
relates  to  man  should  be  without  interest  to  him.' " — Superin- 
tendent F.  Louis  Soldan. 


CHAPTEK  XXY. 

STUDENT   IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH   COLLEGE 
IMPROVEMENT. 

The  Modern  College  makes  Close  Connection  with 
the  High  School — Most  college  students  in  the  near 
future  will  be  high-school  graduates,  and  there  must 
be  no  break  in  the  educational  highway.  The  educa- 
tional world  is  giving  its  best  efforts  to  the  improve- 
ment of  elementary  and  secondary  schools  so  as  to  best 
prepare  youths  for  life  and  for  college. 

It  is  believed  that  early  in  the  twentieth  century 
the  high-school  diploma  will  condition  admission  to 
the  college,  as  the  elementary-school  certificate  will 
condition  admission  to  the  high  school.  This  plan 
exalts  the  elementary  and  the  high  schools  and  great- 
ly helps  the  college.  It  necessitates  the  maintenance 
everywhere  of  specialized  and  correlated  high  schools. 


COLLEGE  IMPROVEMENT.  289 

It  eliminates  the  incubus  and  the  burlesque  of  college 
admission  examinations.  It  unitizes  the  school  and 
the  college  work. 

The  Modern  College  adapts  the  Instruction  to  the 
Students. — The  professors  are  well  grounded  in  prac- 
tical psychology  and  in  the  science  and  art  of  teaching. 
They  realize  that  knowledge  can  not  be  transferred ; 
that  knowledge  can  be  taught  only  by  occasioning  the 
appropriate  activities  in  the  learner's  mind.  They  pro- 
foundly study  the  new  students.  They  wisely  classify 
the  freshmen,  and  adapt  the  work  to  each  student. 
The  antiquated  college  clings  to  the  old  dogma  of 
formal  discipline,  ignores  the  doctrine  of  appercep- 
tion and  interest,  and  labours  to  make  each  student 
fit  its  iron  bedstead.  It  hurts  as  many  as  it  helps, 
and  freezes  and  crushes  out  half  its  students  by  the 
end  of  the  second  year.  The  modern  college  is  doing 
a  beneficent  work  in  the  sensible  management  of  its 
students  during  the  first  and  second  college  years. 

The  Modern  College  Professor  is  a  Teacher. — His  pro- 
fessional preparation  for  teaching  has  been  as  thorough 
as  that  of  the  physician  for  the  practice  of  medicine. 
He  leads  his  students  in  research  and  investigation. 
He  inspires  and  guides,  as  well  as  instructs.  He  works 
with  the  students,  and  is  their  friend  and  adviser. 
The  antiquated  college  professor  lectures  but  does  not 
teach.  He  does  not  know  his  students.  The  close 
friendship  between  the  modern  college  professor  and 
his  students  is  revolutionary ;  it  doubles  the  value  of 
the  college  course. 

The  Modern  College  Faculty  is  a  Teaching  Unit.— 
The  professors  are  broad  and  liberal.  Each  is  in  a  de- 
20 


290  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

gree  familiar  with  work  done  by  the  other  members 
of  the  faculty,  and  so  works  in  view  of  all  the  work. 
There  is  proportion  and  harmony  and  correlation  and 
concentration.  In  our  belated  archaic  colleges  the 
professors  are  as  isolated  in  their  work  as  they  could 
be  if  working  in  different  planets.  A  distinguished 
professor  in  one  of  these  colleges  says  :  "  I  have  taught 
in  this  college  for  a  third  of  a  century ;  during  all 
these  years  not  one  of  my  fellow-professors  has  spent 
an  hour  in  my  class  room."  The  transformation  of 
these  antiquated  colleges  into  modern  colleges  with  real 
faculties  of  earnest  coworkers  is  certainly  one  of  the 
most  beneficent  of  all  college  reforms. 

The  Modern  College  believes  in  Coeducation. — In 
the  college  work  no  distinction  is  made  on  account  of 
sex.  A  due  proportion  of  the  professors  are  women. 
The  students  are  women  and  men.  The  hazing,  the 
rushing,  and  the  dissipation  of  the  old-time  male  col- 
leges is  unknown.  In  college,  as  in  good  society,  young 
men  and  young  women  prove  mutually  helpful,  and 
the  young  women  become  more  womanly  and  the 
young  men  become  more  manly.  By  the  close  of 
the  century  most  male  colleges  will  have  opened  wide 
their  doors  to  women ;  a  decade  or  two  later  most 
female  colleges  will  have  opened  their  doors  to  men. 

The  Modern  College  deeply  interests  the  Educator. 
— A  marvellous  transformation  is  taking  place.  De- 
velopment through  scholarship  takes  the  place  of  formal 
discipline.  Laboratory  work,  original  research,  inves- 
tigation, and  the  best  teaching  largely  take  the  place 
of  the  stupid  lecture  and  the  comical  quiz.  The  oc- 
casional lecture  is  rich  in  thought  and  in  suggestive- 


COLLEGE  IMPROVEMENT.  291 

ness.  The  ideal  professor  studies  his  students  as  well 
as  his  specialty.  His  class  work  is  helpful,  but  he  does 
most  in  guiding  and  inspiring  the  individual  students. 
Like  Aristotle  and  Kant,  he  is  a  teacher  as  well  as  a 
student.  Like  Arnold  and  Agassiz,  large  hearted  and 
broad  viewed,  he  is  an  educator  as  well  as  a  peerless 
specialist. 

The  Modern  College  strengthens  the  High  School — 
The  high-school  graduate  without  a  break  enters  upon 
the  college  work.  The  great  movement  of  our  times 
is  to  secure  the  educative  unity  of  our  schools  and  our 
colleges.  The  modern  college  demands  of  its  students 
culture  and  mental  power  rather  than  a  prescribed 
amount  of  knowledge.  Four  years  of  good  high- 
school  work  leads  to  the  college.  The  high-school 
specialists  are  college  graduates,  and  are  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  needs  of  the  college  as  well  as  the 
needs  of  the  high  school.  The  high-school  faculty 
and  the  college  faculty  are  coworkers.  These  facul- 
ties study  to  do  most  for  the  pupil  and  the  student. 

Options  and  Department  Work  characterize  the  Mod- 
ern College. — Students,  under  skilful  guidance,  select 
their  studies.  A  course  occupies  three  weekly  recita- 
tion periods  through  the  school  year.  The  aim  is  to 
make  all  courses  of  great  educative  value.  Educa- 
tional symmetry  requires  that  each  of  the  five  co-ordi- 
nate groups  of  studies  should  be  represented  in  the 
work  of  the  student  through  the  college  years.  It  is 
a  serious  blunder  to  overlook  this  requirement ;  stu- 
dents must  select  their  studies  under  advisement.  Mod- 
ern college  faculties  work  in  groups  called  schools  and 
departments.  The  isolated  professor  is  a  thing  of  the 


292  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

past.  Department  teaching,  the  highest  stage  of 
school  evolution,  is  the  crowning  feature  of  modern 
college  work.  Specialization  is  correlated,  and  a 
group  of  professors  become  a  teaching  unit. 

The  SmaUer  Modern  Colleges  are  Invaluable.— They 
can  give  fewer  options,  but  they  can  do  as  good  work 
as  the  university.  They  have  some  marked  advan- 
tages. Students  are  individuals  rather  than  masses. 
The  instruction  is  given  by  the  professor  and  not  by 
assistants.  They  create  centres  of  educational  life 
of  inestimable  value.  They  have  vast  advantages  in 
the  development  of  character.  Everywhere  the  well- 
endowed  and  efficient  smaller  college  should  be  fos- 
tered. 

THE  MODERN  UNIVERSITY. 

All  teachers  feel  a  deep  interest  in  the  modern 
university.  It  is  getting  into  close  touch  with  the 
schools  and  with  the  people  through  adaptation  and 
university  extension.  Graduate  work  characterizes 
the  university.  Its  departments  of  education,  of 
medicine,  of  law,  of  engineering,  etc.,  are  its  glory. 
"We  study  with  profound  interest  the  revolutionary 
movements  now  going  on  in  our  great  universities. 

1.  The  Undergraduates  have  Skilled  Advisers. 
Students  are  carefully  grouped  in  small  sections,  and 
each  group  has  one  of  the  professors  as  adviser.  Our 
largest  universities  may  thus  keep  in  close  touch  with 
each  undergraduate.  At  no  time  in  life  do  young 
people  more  need  a  wise  friend  than  during  the  fresh- 
man and  sophomore  years  in  the  great  universities. 
During  these  precious  years  in  the  antiquated  colleges 


COLLEGE   IMPROVEMENT.  293 

and  universities  a  large  per  cent  of  the  students  waste 
their  energies  and  drift  to  the  bad. 

2.  Physical  Culture  includes  all  Students.     The 
best  gymnasiums  are  provided,  arid  skilled  specialists 
direct  the  exercises  and  lead  the  students  in  the  ways 
of  physical  vigour.     Football  and  other  semibarbar- 
ous  games  are  left  to  the  experts.     The  modern  uni- 
versity plans  the  physical  betterment  of  all  students, 
and  not  merely  the  pampering  of  a  team  or  crew. 

3.  The  Course  Systein  makes  Adaptation  possible. 
Under  the  guidance  of  his  adviser  each  student  elects 
the  course  best  for  him.     Graduation  is  conditioned 
by  culture,  and  the  B.  A.  and  the  M.  A.  degrees  are 
conferred  on  students  who  satisfactorily  complete  any 
of  the  co-ordinate  degree  courses.     The  gain  over  the 
antiquated  curriculum  and  the  confusing  multiplicity 
of  degrees  is  marvellous. 

4.  Early  Specialization  Helps.    During  the  junior 
and  senior  years  a  student  may  take  one  course  each  year 
in  his  chosen  specialty,  and  these  courses  count  for  his 
academic  as  well  as  for  his  professional  degree.     The 
gain  is  incalculable.     The  stimulus  is  such  as  to  aug- 
ment general  culture.     Then  the  student  learns  to  en- 
rich his  specialty  by  all  learning.    Take  the  department 
of  education  ;  the  student  elects  teaching.    During  the 
junior   and  senior   years  he   takes  two   professional 
courses.     He  learns  to  study  and  observe  and  read  as 
an  educational  artist.     Two  years  of  graduate  work  in 
the  department  of  education  prepares  him  for  the 
profession  of  teaching.     The  same  is  true  of  the  de- 
partment of  law,  the  department  of  medicine,  and  the 
other  professional  departments. 


294  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

CO-ORDINATION  AND  CORRELATION  OF  EDUCATIONAL 
INSTITUTIONS. 

As  a  fitting  summary,  a  few  paragraphs  from  an 
article  in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  by  Dr.  E.  H. 
Magill  will  interest  all  teachers  : 

"  The  common  consensus  of  thoughtful  minds  in 
these  latter  days  has  been  gradually  tending  more  and 
more  toward  the  proper  co-ordination  and  correlation 
of  our  educational  institutions.  In  a  comparatively 
new  country  like  ours  it  may  naturally  be  supposed 
that,  as  the  need  for  various  grades  of  these  institu- 
tions has  arisen,  the  want  has  not  always  been  supplied 
with  a  sufficiently  careful  consideration  of  the  needs 
of  those  of  other  grades,  and  that,  as  a  result,  the  gen- 
eral educational  interests  of  the  country  require  some 
readjustment  and  reorganization.  It  should  be  ob- 
served in  the  beginning  that  no  censure  is  intended  to 
be  applied  to  any  institution  or  class  of  institutions 
for  their  present  status,  as  this  has  resulted  from  the 
progressive  stages  of  their  growth  and  development, 
and  no  sudden  or  violent  change  is  contemplated  or 
desired.  The  general  outline  here  to  be  presented  is 
rather  an  ideal  system  for  future  realization,  toward 
which  all  may  gradually  work  as  their  surroundings 
and  circumstances  may  permit. 

"  In  the  three  years  from  the  age  of  three  to  six, 
with  competent  trained  teachers,  the  little  ones  receive 
a  training  of  the  hand,  the  eye,  the  ear,  the  voice,  and 
the  mind  that  tells  powerfully  upon  all  the  subsequent 
years  of  their  school  and  college  life ;  and  the  social, 
moral,  and  unsectarian  religious  element  of  their  na- 


COLLEGE  IMPROVEMENT.  295 

tnres  receives  in  these  early  years  a  most  profound 
and  lasting  impression. 

"  We  present  this  co-ordination  and  correlation  of 
our  educational  institutions  as  an  ideal  scheme  toward 
which  we  should  ever  aspire,  but  which  we  can  not 
expect  to  see  realized  by  any  sudden  or  violent 
changes,  or,  indeed,  in  full  operation  within  the  next 
quarter  of  a  century.  But  that  something  analogous 
to  that  which  is  here  presented  will  be  found  feasible 
and  practicable,  and  to  harmonize  fully  with  the  in- 
tuitions of  this  free  country  of  ours,  and  enable  us  to 
attract  students  from  abroad  in  great  numbers  instead 
of  sending  them,  as  now,  to  complete  their  education 
in  Germany,  France,  or  England,  we  are  most  thor- 
oughly convinced. 

BETTER  SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE  ORGANIZATION 
AND  CONTROL. 

SUGGESTIONS,   STUDY   HINTS,   AND  TOPICS   FOR  DISCUSSION. 

XX.  Correlation  of  Schools  and  Course*. — What  do  you  consider 
the  central  idea  in  education  as  a  science?  Show  the  organic 
unity  of  wisely  planned  school  work.  Why  should  all  teachers 
learn  to  view  life  as  a  whole  ?  Describe  the  stages  of  pupil  growth 
and  the  corresponding  schools.  What  studies  have  the  highest 
educative  values  !  Name  the  five  necessary  co-ordinate  groups  of 
studies.  Discuss  the  inorganic  and  the  organic  groups ;  the  litera- 
ture group ;  the  language  group ;  the  history  group.  Name  the  five 
practical  co-ordinate  study  groups.  Do  school  conditions  demand 
this  grouping  ?  Discuss  the  conduct  group ;  the  language-litera- 
ture group ;  the  science  group ;  the  mathematics  group ;  the  art 
group.  Give  some  of  the  grounds  for  this  grouping.  Give  the 
history  of  the  Report  of  the  Fifteen.  Describe  the  course  of  study 
for  elementary  schools  planned  by  the  committee.  Explain  the 
elementary-school  period ;  the  recitation  periods ;  recitation  time ; 


296  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

promotions;  few  subjects;  correlation  of  studies.  Give  the  his- 
tory of  the  Report  of  the  Ten.  Describe  the  parallel  courses  of 
study  for  secondary  schools  planned  by  the  committee.  Discuss 
the  place  and  work  of  the  college.  Give  the  group  place  of 
each  of  the  school  studies  (page  200),  and  describe  its  kinder- 
garten phase ;  its  primary  phase ;  its  intermediate  phase ;  its  high- 
school  phase ;  its  college  phase.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  cor- 
relation of  schools  and  colleges  ?  by  the  correlation  of  courses  of 
study  ?  by  co-ordination  ?  by  concentration  f 

XXI.  Efficient  Eural  Schools. — Why  is  it  so  necessary  to  im- 
prove rural  schools  ?    Sketch  the  history  of  our  country  schools. 
What  schools  are  classed  as  rural  schools  ?    Why  must  the  rural 
school  work  be  sui  generis^    Describe  your  ideal  country  school ; 
country  schoolhouse.     Why  do  you  consider  the  organic  group- 
ing of  the  rural  schools  an  educational  necessity  ?    Is  the  town- 
ship grouping  the  best  ?     Why  should  a  school  group  be  compact  I 
Why  should  the  school  board  be  perpetual?    Why  is  it  vital  to 
make  the  teacher  of  the  central  school  principal  ?    Give  some  rea- 
sons for  making  village  schools  the  central  schools.    Why  should 
rural-school  organization  be  exceedingly  flexible?     State  your 
plan  for  creating  and  managing  rural-school  libraries.    What 
school  apparatus  is  necessary  in  country  schools  ?    Give  some  of 
the  advantages  of  rural  schools  ;  some  of  the  disadvantages.     De- 
scribe your  plan  for  classifying  rural  schools.    Give  some  of  the 
advantages  of  the  four-group  plan.     Discuss  the  rural-school 
study  groups ;  the  rural-school  course  of  study ;  the  rural-school 
programme.    Compare  the  three-group  and  the  four-group  pro- 
grammes.   May  the  teachers  of  a  rural  district  be  organized  into 
a  faculty  ?    Describe  the  faculty  meetings.    Describe  the  partial- 
ly graded  rural  school ;  the  rural  high  school.    Explain  the  rural- 
school  methods.    Is  it  possible  to  make  our  rural  schools  as  effi- 
cient as  the  urban  schools  ? 

XXII.  Kindergarten  and  Primary  Schools.— What  is  the  key  to 
child  knowledge?    Describe  the  kindergarten  period ;  the  kinder- 
garten spirit ;  kindergarten  literature.    Why  must  the  first  pri- 
mary grade  be  semi-kindergarten?    Picture  your  ideal  primary 
schoolhouse.     Describe  the  primary  faculty.     Outline  primary 
grading  and  classification.    Give  the  primary  study  groups.    Give 
some  features  of  the  grouped  course  of  study  for  primary  schools. 
Why  must  details  be  left  to  primary  faculties  ? 


COLLEGE  IMPROVEMENT.  297 

XXIII.  Specialized  Intermediate  Schools. — Describe  the  educa- 
tional highway.     Discuss  stages  of  pupil  growth ;  the  uniqueness 
of  each  school  group ;  stages  of  school  evolution.    Examine  inter- 
mediate specialization;  the  intermediate  stage  of  pupil  growth; 
the  adaptation  of  intermediate  work.     Describe  the  ideal  interme- 
diate-school building.    Discuss  the  intermediate  faculty.    Why 
should  there  be  as  many  male  as  female  teachers  ?    Discuss  the 
intermediate  study  groups ;  the  intermediate  course  of  study ;  the 
suggestive  intermediate  programme ;  individual  promotion ;  class 
promotion.    Why  must  details  be  left  to  each  intermediate  facul- 
ty!   Picture  the  specialized  intermediate  school  at  work.    De- 
scribe the  work  of  each  special  teacher.    Give  a  few  of  the  reasons 
urged  for  transforming  the  old  grammar  school  into  the  special- 
ized intermediate  school.    State  some  of  the  objections.    Why 
should  we  hasten  leisurely? 

XXIV.  Specialized  and  Correlated  High  Schools.— What  schools 
compose  this  group?    Why  should  the  high  school  prepare  for 
life  as  well" as  for  college?    State  the  order  in  which  the  school 
groups  appeared.    Discuss  the  question,  Is  the  high  school  sui 
generis^     Describe  youth.     Discuss  the  question,  Is  youth  the 
real  formative  stage  of  growth?    Tell  the  story  of  high-school 
evolution.     Describe  your  ideal  high-school  building ;  high-school 
equipments ;  high-school  organization ;  high-school  promotion  and 
graduation.     What  are  the  aims  of  the  high  school  ?    What  stud- 
ies are  best?    Examine  the  high-school  study  groups.    Discuss 
the  questions,  Should  conduct  studies  be  made  a  distinct  study 
group  ?    Should  language  and  literature  be  grouped  as  the  lan- 
guage-literature group  of  studies  ?    Has  science  a  higher  educa- 
tive value  than  mathematics?    Should  the  language-literature 
group  of  studies  be  given  double  the  time  of  the  other  groups  ? 
Examine  the  course  of  study  for  the  smaller  high  schools.    Why 
must  each  specialist  arrange  the  details  of  his  work  ?    Explain  the 
suggestive  programme.    Describe  the  high-school  faculty.    Why 
should  the  principal  be  the  leading  teacher?    Why  should  he 
teach  the  conduct  studies  ?    Why  should  he  be  ever  a  leader  and 
never  a  boss  ?    Discuss  the  question,  Should  the  sexes  be  equal  in 
the  high-school  faculty? 

XXV.  College  Correlation  and  Improvement. — Point  out  the  dis- 
tinction between  a  high  school  and  a  college ;  between  a  college 
and  a  university.    Describe  the  correlation  of  high-school  and 


298  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

college  work.  Compare  the  modern  and  the  antiquated  college  in 
the  treatment  of  the  freshman  class ;  in  artistic  teaching ;  in  co- 
education; in  progress;  in  giving  options;  in  strengthening  the 
high  school.  Discuss,  Should  the  smaller  colleges  be  fostered  f 
Why  are  all  men  interested  in  the  modern  university  !  Compare 
the  modern  and  the  antiquated  university  as  to  student  advisers ; 
as  to  physical  culture ;  as  to  courses.  Discuss,  Should  special- 
ization begin  with  the  junior  year?  Illustrate  by  the  depart- 
ment of  education.  Give  a  brief  statement  of  Dr.  Magill's  scheme 
of  co-ordination  and  correlation. 


PART  VI. 

PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EFFICIENT 
METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 


CHAPTER  XXVI.— EFFICIENT  METHODS  IN  CONDUCT  TEACHING. 

XXVII.— EFFICIENT  METHODS  IN  LANGUAGE-LITERA- 
TURE TEACHING. 

XXVIII. — EFFICIENT  METHODS  IN  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

XXIX. — EFFICIENT     METHODS      IN      MATHEMATICS 
TEACHING. 

XXX.— EFFICIENT  METHODS  IN  ART  TEACHING. 
299 


XVI  and 
XVIII. 
CLASS 

METHODS. 


XXVI. 
CONDUCT 
METHODS. 


XXVII. 

LANGUAGE- 
LITERATURE 
METHODS. 


XXVIII. 

SCIENCE 
METHODS. 


XXIX. 

SCIENCE 
METHODS. 


XXX. 

ART 
METHODS. 


1.  Characteristics  of  efficient  class  methods. 

2.  Investigation  class  method. 

3.  Helpful  class  devices. 

4.  Oral  teaching  and  book  teaching. 

1.  Pre-eminent  importance  of  conduct  teach- 

ing. 

2.  The  conduct  group  of  studies. 

3.  Efficient  methods  in  special  conduct  les- 

sons. 

4.  Efficient  methods  in  history. 

5.  Efficient  methods  in  mind  lessons  and  prac- 

tical religion. 

1.  Language-literature    group    of    studies. — 

Educative  value. 

2.  Efficient  methods  in  reading  and  expres- 

sion. 

3.  Efficient  methods  in  literature. 

4.  Efficient  methods  in  language. 

5.  Efficient  methods  in  composition. 

1.  Science  group  of  studies. — Educative  value. 

2.  Efficient  methods  in  geography. 

3.  Efficient  methods  in  biology. 

4.  Efficient  methods  in  physics. 

1.  Mathematics  group  of  studies. — Educative 

value. 

2.  Efficient  methods  in  arithmetic. 

3.  Efficient  methods  in  concrete  geometry. 

4.  Efficient  methods  in  oral  bookkeeping. 

f  1.  Art  group  of  studies. — Educative  value. 

2.  Efficient  methods  in  physical  culture. 

3.  Efficient  methods  in  drawing  and  writing. 

4.  Efficient  methods  in  vocal  music. 

5.  Efficient  methods  in  manual  training. 

300 


PAET  SIXTH. 

PUPIL  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  EFFICIENT 
METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

EFFICIENT    METHODS    IN    CONDUCT   TEACHING, 

CONDUCT  is  the  greatest  thing  in  education.  The 
ideal  education  elevates  conduct  culture  from  a  fitful 
incidental  training  to  the  highest  place  in  school  and 
college  work.  All  studies  are,  in  a  sense,  conduct 
studies,  as  all  studies  are  language  studies  ;  but  in  his- 
tory, rather  than  in  algebra,  high  ideals  and  ennobling 
motives  are  impressed.  The  studies  which  lead  to  self- 
knowledge  and  to  rational  doing  are  pre-eminently  con- 
duct studies.  All  true  teachers  are,  first  of  all,  con- 

The  Conduct  Group  of  Studies. 


Elementary  Schools. 

Secondary  schools. 

Colleges. 

Special  conduct  les- 
sons. 
Biographical  history. 
Oral  civics. 
Oral  mind  lessons. 
Practical  religion. 

Practical  ethics. 

Comparative  history. 
Elementary  civics. 
Elementary  psychology. 
Practical  religion. 

Philosophic  ethics. 

Philosophic  history. 
Philosophic  civics. 
Philosophy. 
Practical  religion. 

301 


302  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

duct  teachers,  as  all  are  language  teachers ;  but  the 
teacher  of  the  conduct  studies  becomes  a  specialist  in 
conduct  culture.  Promoting  good  conduct  is  made 
primary. 

It  seems  fitting  to  include  in  the  conduct  study 
group,  studies  of  the  individual  self,  the  social  self, 
and  the  cosmic  self.  Self-knowledge  and  rational 
self-activity  characterize  the  conduct  group  of  studies. 
Intelligent  doing  develops  character.  Educative 
methods  in  teaching  the  conduct  studies  are  such  as 
foster  character  growth.  Education  is  the  develop- 
ment and  training  that  fit  pupils  for  the  highest  hap- 
piness of  which  they  are  capable,  and  happiness  comes 
from  loving  law-abiding.  The  conduct  studies  have 
the  highest  educative  value,  for  they  do  most  to  pre- 
pare pupils  for  complete  living.  We  marvel  at  the 
strange  neglect  of  conduct  culture  in  the  past,  and 
greatly  rejoice  in  the  movement  to  exalt  conduct 
teaching.  In  school  and  college,  one  recitation  period 
daily  must  be  devoted  to  the  conduct  studies.  A 
special  programme  for  conduct  work  will  be  planned 
by  each  conduct  teacher.  All  principals  of  schools 
and  presidents  of  colleges  are  to  be  specialists  in  con- 
duct culture.  Teachers  in  our  primary  and  ungraded 
schools,  and  in  our  unspecialized  grammar  schools,  are 
conduct  teachers  first  of  all ;  they  are  also  language- 
literature  teachers,  and  science  teachers,  and  mathe- 
matics teachers,  and  art  teachers. 

METHODS  IN  TEACHING  SPECIAL  CONDUCT  LESSONS. 

The  special  conduct  lessons  in  the  elementary 
school  become  practical  ethics  in  the  high  school  and 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  IN  CONDUCT  TEACHING.    303 

philosophic  ethics  in  the  college.  Good  conduct 
teaching  fosters  the  growth  into  character  of  right 
ethical  ideas,  ennobling  emotions,  and  generous  acts. 

1.  School  Conduct.     Educative  school  government 
is  the  best  means  of  practical  conduct  culture.     Law- 
abiding  self-control  becomes  habitual.     Pupils  learn 
to  work  silently  and  orderly.     Regularity  and  prompt- 
itude  are   school  virtues.      Gentility  and   generosity 
become  ingrained.     All   right  habits  are   cherished. 
Pupils  learn  to  correct  their  own  faults.     Even  pun- 
ishments are  made  helpful.     The  teacher  thinks  of 
school  government  as  the  means  of  promoting  charac- 
ter growth.     Part  III,  Educative  School  Government, 
may  be  studied  as  a  part  of  this  section. 

2.  How  to  Study.     Good  school  conduct  means 
studious  habits  and  efficient  study.     Teaching  pupils 
how  to  study,  developing  a  love  of  study,  and  train- 
ing: to  studious  habits  are  cardinal  in  school  work. 

O 

Study  is  the  pupil's  business.  Self-control  becomes 
self-concentration,  and  conduct  becomes  studiousness. 
To  learn  how  to  learn  is  more  important  than  the 
knowledge  gained.  The  teacher  leads  even  the  little 
ones  to  find  out  for  themselves.  Pupils  are  trained 
to  find  out  from  Nature  and  also  to  find  out  from 
books.  It  is  a  great  thing  to  teach  pupils  what  to 
study  and  how  to  study.  Studious  habits  are  even 
more  important  than  learning.  As  pupils  advance 
they  learn  to  investigate,  learn  to  make  independent 
research. 

Half  the  energies  of  our  pupils  are  squandered 
because  we  do  not  teach  them  how  to  study.  Many 
of  our  pupils  will  fail  in  life  because  we  fail  to  edu- 


304:  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

cate  them  to  succeed.  All  tilings  are  possible  to 
pupils  who  acquire  studious  habits  and  learn  how  to 
do  efficient  work.  Good  teaching  trains  pupils  to  do 
good  studying.  Occasionally  the  teacher  and  the 
pupils  devote  the  recitation  period  to  studying  the 
new  lesson  ;  but  we  secure  the  most  satisfactory  re- 
sults when  we  devote  one  weekly  recitation  period  to 
helpful  lessons  in  the  art  of  efficient  study.  These 
lessons  should  be  continued  till  the  pupil  reaches  the 
seventh  grade.  These  lessons  are  of  great  value  to 
teachers  as  well  as  pupils.  Some  wise  teacher  should 
prepare  a  practical  manual  on  Teaching  Pupils  how 
to  Study. 

3.  Lessons  in  Morals  and  Manners.  These  are 
special  conduct  lessons.  Pupils  think  of  these  as  con- 
duct lessons  rather  than  lessons  in  manners  and 
morals.  "When  wisely  given,  these  lessons  are  in- 
tensely interesting  and  of  the  highest  practical  value. 

How  often  is  Best  ? — One  lesson  each  week  during 
the  first  six  elementary  school  years  has  proved  most 
profitable.  All  school  work  supplements  these  spe- 
cial lessons,  but  experience  demonstrates  the  necessity 
for  these  specific  and  systematic  lessons.  The  Com- 
mittee of  Fifteen  mentions  that  "  brief  series  of  les- 
sons in  morals  and  manners  should  be  given  each 
year  with  a  view  to  build  up  in  the  mind  a  theory  of 
the  conventionalities  of  polite  and  pure-minded  so- 
ciety." 

What  Lessons  are  most  Beneficial  ? — Such  lessons  as 
tend  to  foster  high  ideals  and  good  conduct.  Inci- 
dents in  the  lives  of  great  women  and  men  are  always 
helpful.  Historic  events  involving  morals  and  man- 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  IN  CONDUCT  TEACHING.    305 

ners  are  always  interesting  and  uplifting.  Here,  as 
everywhere,  concentration  gives  the  best  results.  Pa- 
tiently and  persistently  the  teacher  leads  the  pupil  to 
grow  the  cardinal  virtues  into  habits.  All  lessons  are 
selected  and  taught  to  promote  this  end. 

What  Methods  are  most  Efficient  ?— Oral  teaching 
is  every  way  the  best.  Oral  lessons  should  never  be- 
come lectures,  but  more  like  Socratic  dialogues,  build- 
ing up  systematic  knowledge  partly  from  what  is 
already  known  and  partly  by  new  investigation. 
Pupils  must  be  led  to  give  incidents  from  their  own 
experiences  and  to  express  their  own  views.  To-day 
the  topic  written  on  the  board  is,  The  Generous  Pu- 
pil. The  teacher  introduces  the  lesson  by  telling  a 
striking  illustrative  story.  Pupils  tell  of  generous 
acts  which  they  have  witnessed.  Why  do  you  like 
generous  pupils?  Pupils  give  reasons.  Why  will 
you  try  to  be  generous  from  habit  ?  Pupils  are  led 
to  resolve  and  tell.  Lessons  thus  taught  get  into  the 
lives  of  the  pupils. 

How  may  Conduct  Lessons  be  adapted? — We  study 
to  adapt  the  conduct  lessons  to  the  stage  of  growth 
and  to  the  social  environments.  We  study  our  pupils 
as  they  live  at  their  homes  and  connect  our  lessons 
with  their  experiences.  Reasoning  and  sermonizing 
are  worse  than  wasted  on  the  little  child.  Through 
kindness  and  environments  we  lead  the  little  ones  to 
form  good  habits.  Through  firmness  and  gentle  but 
unvarying  restraints  we  develop  a  proper  respect  for 
authority  and  prevent  the  formation  of  bad  habits. 
During  early  childhood  conduct  lessons  are  largely 
training  lessons. 
21 


306  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

How  may  Conduct  Lessons  be  correlated? — The 
teacher  so  plans  that  the  history  lesson  and  the  litera- 
ture lesson  re-enforce  the  special  conduct  lesson.  The 
science  lessons  and  the  art  lessons  may  be  made  ex- 
ceedingly helpful  in  promoting  good  conduct.  Iso- 
lated stories  or  lessons,  however  excellent,  are  waste 
labour.  Correlation  and  concentration  condition  effi- 
cient teaching. 

What  Books  will  help  ? — No  text-book  must  ever 
be  used.  Stories,  as  a  rule,  must  be  told  and  not 
read.  Detailed  lessons  as  found  in  books  must  be 
used  merely  as  suggestive  ;  spontaneity  must  char- 
acterize conduct  lessons.  Yet  books  are  exceedingly 
helpful  in  the  conduct  work,  and  the  working  library 
supplements  the  lessons.  For  teachers  as  well  as 
pupils  we  are  getting  many  helpful  books  for  conduct 
teaching. 

METHODS  IN  TEACHING  HISTORY. 

History  is  the  Great  Conduct  Study. — Philosoph- 
ically considered,  the  history  studies  come  as  the  fifth 
necessary  group  of  studies ;  but  practical  education 
regards  history  as  the  central  conduct  study.  History 
is  the  race  teaching  by  experience.  We  become  good 
citizens  because  every  page  of  history  teaches  us  that 
all  good  comes  through  law-abiding.  History  is  the 
story  of  humane  progress.  We  make  progress  be- 
cause we  work  in  the  light  of  all  the  centuries.  His- 
tory is  the  world's  great  character  gallery.  We  make 
our  lives  sublime  because  we  live  in  the  presence  of 
the  mighty  past.  History  is  philosophy  teaching  by 
example.  We  become  wise  and  refined  and  pure  be- 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  IN  CONDUCT  TEACHING.    3Q7 

cause  our  race  heritage  is  the  true,  the  beautiful, 
and  the  good.  History  is  cosmic.  We  become  worthy 
of  a  place  among  the  immortals  because  we  come  to 
think  of  the  Eternal  Energy,  from  whom  all  things 
proceed,  as  our  loving  Father;  because  we  come  to 
feel  that  all  men — all  other  rational  beings  are  our 
brothers ;  and  because  we  get  to  realize  that  the  uni- 
verse is  our  everlasting  patrimony. 

1.  Primary  History  Methods.  The  historic  sense 
becomes  active  as  early  as  the  seventh  year,  and  chil- 
dren begin  to  be  interested  in  history  lessons.  The 
primary  teacher  studies  to  give  the  pupil  object  les- 
sons in  social  life.  Myths,  fairy  tales,  folklore,  bio- 
graphical stories,  historic  incidents,  are  made  to  lead 
up  to  civics  and  history  proper.  Child  life  is  made 
the  objective  basis  of  the  history  lessons.  As  pupils 
out  of  their  own  experience  and  the  assimilated  ex- 
perience of  others  create  a  geography  world,  so  out 
of  their  own  historic  experience  and  the  assimilated 
historic  experience  of  others  they  create  a  history 
world.  The  verity  of  the  history  story  interests  the 
child.  The  bearing  on  conduct  of  adapted  history 
lessons  is  of  paramount  value.  As  the  pupil's  Nature 
experiences  are  fundamental  in  science  teaching,  so 
the  learner's  social  experiences  must  be  made  the  basis 
of  history  teaching.  The  home,  the  school,  the  Church, 
and  the  state  are  the  social  environments  of  the  child, 
and  all  true  history  teaching  must  be  grounded  in  the 
pupil's  actual  experience.  What  we  teach,  and  when 
and  how,  must  come  in  answer  to  the  child's  needs. 
Basing  all  teaching  on  the  experience  of  the  learner  has 
completely  changed  our  methods  of  teaching  history. 


308  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

2.  Intermediate  Methods  in  History.  The  history 
story,  now  taking  a  wider  range,  touches  the  larger 
life  of  the  pupil.  The  intermediate  teacher  plans  a 
course  of  lessons  in  general  history  running  through 
the  intermediate  period.  Hebrew  history,  Grecian 
history,  Roman  history,  and  the  stories  of  the  nations, 
furnish  abundant  materials.  What  lessons  will  prove 
most  helpful  ?  The  course  you  outline  will  be  your 
answer.  You  study  to  co-ordinate  your  history  lessons, 
your  literature  lessons,  and  your  special  conduct  les- 
sons. The  lessons  are  always  conversational,  and  never 
degenerate  into  mere  story  telling  or  lectures.  The 
lessons  are  made  especially  interesting.  Biographical 
and  historical  stories  and  stories  of  travel  enter  into 
the  warp  and  the  woof  of  these  lessons.  The  pu- 
pils are  led  to  read  interesting  books  in  the  line 
of  the  lessons.  These  history  lessons  are  the  most 
fruitful  conduct  lessons.  Before  the  age  of  twelve 
history  finds  its  natural  expressions  in  stories,  pic- 
tures, plays,  and  poems,  and  is  at  once  aesthetic  and 
didactic. 

History  and  literature  during  the  early  years  seem 
to  blend,  but  about  the  age  of  twelve  inference  begins 
to  play  an  important  part,  and  historic  study  gets  to 
be  critical.  The  pupil  begins  to  make  an  event  give 
an  account  of  itself,  begins  to  ask  what  occurred  ? 
when  ?  where  ?  how  ?  why  ?  A  text-book  in  Ameri- 
can history  is  studied  during  the  seventh  and  eighth 
school  years,  but  oral  lessons  in  general  history 
supplement  the  bookwork.  There  is  no  hurry,  no 
crowding ;  the  pupils  live  the  historic  events  over 
again,  for  they  become  to  them  almost  as  real  as  the 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  CONDUCT  TEACHING.   309 

living  present.  Imagination  is  the  master  builder,  nor 
does  history  interest  the  prosy  plodder.  As  we  lead 
each  pupil  to  create  his  own  geography  world,  so  we 
lead  each  one  to  create  his  own  history  world. 

By  means  of  historic  charts  and  other  devices  the 
pupil  is  led  to  realize  the  unity  of  history.  The 
blending  of  the  lessons  in  history  and  literature  and 
geography  is  most  marked  during  the  intermediate 
period.  The  special  teachers  in  these  groups  plan 
unity  of  work. 

3.  High- school  Methods  in  History.     About  the 
age  of  fifteen  historic  study  becomes  more  and  more 
reflective.     Pupils  now  study  the  lives  of  peoples  and 
begin  the  systematic   study  of  comparative  history. 
They  study  both  general  and  special  history  and  learn 
in  some  degree  the  art  of  research. 

By  giving  two  weekly  recitation  periods  to  his- 
tory throughout  the  four  high-school  years  a  good 
foundation  in  historic  study  may  be  laid.  No  at- 
tempt is  made  to  cover  all  the  ground,  but  the  rnost 
helpful  things  are  carefully  studied.  The  best  in  the 
lives  of  the  best  men  and  the  best  peoples  somehow 
gets  into  the  lives  of  the  pupils. 

4.  College  Methods  in  teaching  History.    At  eight- 
een the  student  begins   in    earnest  to  try  to  master 
history  as  a  science.     Independent  research,  compara- 
tive history,   monographical   special   studies,  critical 
interpretations,  are  some  features  of  collegiate  historic 
work.     It  is  important  that  the  student  devote  two 
weekly  recitation  periods  throughout  the  four  college 
years  to  historic  studies.     Thus  will  be  laid  the  best 
basis  for  life  work.     The  philosophy  of  history,  phil- 


310  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

osophic    history,  and   original  historic    investigation 
come  largely  as  graduate  work. 

5.  Helps  in  teaching  History.  How  can  we  so 
teach  history  as  to  develop  character?  This  is  a 
vital  pedagogical  question  and  will  elicit  more  and 
more  attention  as  the  decades  go  by.  Germany  and 
France  and  Italy  are  rich  in  historic  teaching  helps. 
England  has  taught  the  world  how  to  write  history, 
but  to  America  belongs  the  honour  of  producing  ideal 
school  histories.  Our  recent  contributions  in  methods 
of  teaching  history  are  highly  valuable.  First  of  all 
we  have  How  to  study  and  teach  History,  by  B.  A. 
Hinsdale.  Next  we  have  Methods  of  teaching  His- 
tory, by  G.  Stanley  Hall.  In  his  Manual  of  Methods 
A.  H.  Garlick  makes  excellent  suggestions.  History 
in  the  Common  Schools,  by  Emily  J.  Rice,  and 
Unity  in  College  Entrance  History,  by  Lucy  M. 
Salmon,  in  Educational  Review,  September,  1896, 
are  counted  among  the  helpful  recent  contributions. 
The  reports  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  and  the  Com- 
mittee of  Fifteen  will  prove  of  great  value  to  teach- 
ers of  history. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  Civics. 

By  civics  is  meant  education  for  citizenship.  We 
here  use  civics  in  a  broad  sense,  so  as  to  include  gov- 
ernment, economics,  patriotism,  international  policy — 
lessons  that  will  best  prepare  pupils  for  the  duties  of 
good  citizens.  In  the  lower  grades  history  and  civics 
are  blended ;  but  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
and  through  the  four  high-school  years  one  recitation 
period  a  week  should  be  devoted  to  civics.  In  the 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  CONDUCT  TEACHING.   3H 

college,  civics   becomes  political  economy  and  soci- 
ology. 

1.  Primary  Methods.     Our   pupils   breathe   the 
atmosphere  of  citizenship.     We  lead  the  little  ones  to 
experience  law  and  government.     We  begin  with  the 
family ;  here  the  child  experiences  the  elements  of  all 
government.     The  school  next  enlarges  child  experi- 
ence.    Then  community  government,  and  county,  and 
State,  and  nation  begin  to  be  experienced  as  the  pu- 
pils advance.     These  experience  lessons  in  civics  are 
impressed  in  connection  with  the  history  lessons  and 
literature  lessons  and  the  geography  lessons.     Pupils 
get  into  their  lives  the  elements  of  good  citizenship 
and   patriotism.      Even   thus   early  they  are   led  to 
realize  that  liberty  and  all  good  come  through  law- 
abiding. 

2.  Intermediate  Methods.     With  the  younger  pu- 
pils the  synthetic  process  is  best,  but  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  the  analytic  process  is  used.     Pupils 
may  now  begin  with  our  national  government.     It  is 
thought  to  be  safe  to  use  an  easy  text-book  on  civil 
government  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.     One 
lesson  a  week  during  these  years  will  do  much  to  pre- 
pare our  pupils  for  citizenship. 

METHODS  IN  TEACHING  MIND  LESSONS. 

1.  Primary  Mind  Lessons.  Self-knowledge  is 
most  valuable,  for  it  is  the  basis  of  rational  conduct. 
It  seems  fitting  that  easy  mind  lessons  should  be  given 
in  all  elementary  schools.  Pupils  stand  face  to  face 
with  the  mind  world  just  as  they  do  with  the  matter 
world.  What  appears  to  them  in  the  matter  world  is 


312  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

called  physical  phenomena,  and  what  appears  to  them 
in  the  mind  world  is  called  mental  phenomena.  We 
lead  pupils  to  explore  the  matter  world,  and  we  call 
the  work  Nature  study ;  we  lead  them  to  explore  the 
self-world,  and  we  call  the  work  self-study.  Pupils 
experience  sensations,  and  out  of  their  sensations 
make  their  sense  notions  ;  they  experience  awareness, 
and  out  of  their  conscious  experiences  make  their  self- 
ideas.  "  Mind  lessons,"  says  Dr.  Miinsterberg,  "  can 
not  come  too  early."  The  pupil  sees,  hears,  touches ; 
attends,  desires,  acts ;  remembers,  dreams,  imagines ; 
perceives,  conceives,  infers ;  hopes,  loves,  enjoys.  We 
lead  the  pupil  through  his  own  conscious  acts  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  himself.  These  lessons  are  at 
first  given  incidentally  in  connection  with  the  daily 
work.  There  must  be  no  definitions,  no  diagrams,  no 
theories,  no  hard  words,  no  conscious  introspection. 
Pupils  become  acquainted  with  the  self-world,  just  as 
they  become  acquainted  with  the  sense  world.  Self- 
study  goes  on  side  by  side  with  Nature  study.  The 
lessons  in  conduct  and  history  and  literature  are  often 
the  best  self-lessons.  Mind  lessons  are  as  wholesome 
and  helpful  as  object  lessons. 

2.  Intermediate  Mind  Lessons.  During  the  sev- 
enth and  eighth  years  one  mind  lesson  a  week  is  ex- 
ceedingly helpful.  These  lessons  are  based  on  pupil 
experience.  Nothing  is  said  about  soul,  or  psychol- 
ogy, or  faculty.  Definitions  are  not  yet  thought  of. 
Memory  is  simply  a  self-remembering,  and  judgment 
is  a  self- judging,  and  choice  is  a  self-choosing.  These 
lessons  fit  into  the  pupil's  life  and  supplement  the  les- 
sons in  all  the  other  studies.  They  prepare  the  pupil 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  CONDUCT  TEACHING.   313 

as  nothing  else  can  to  understand  man  and  history  and 
literature.  It  is  a  mistake  to  send  our  pupils  out  into 
life  with  vague  and  often  hurtful  self-notions.  Clear, 
well-defined  elementary  self-knowledge  is  the  best 
preparation  for  life. 

3.  Elementary  Psychology.     During  the  first  and 
second  high-school  years  the  mind  lessons  are  given 
in  connection  with  the  study  of  practical  ethics ;  and 
during  the  third  and  fourth  years  an  easy  elementary 
text-book  in  experimental  and  descriptive  psychology 
is  studied. 

High-school  pupils  feel  an  irrepressible  longing  for 
deeper  insight  into  the  self-world  and  the  social  world 
and  the  cosmic  world.  The  conduct  teacher  wisely 
leads  them,  and  so  they  become  real  explorers  and  not 
dreamers.  Each  lesson  is  based  on  experience;  but 
the  pupil  now  seeks  to  enrich  his  own  experiences  by 
the  experiences  of  the  race.  Each  pupil  is  led  to  create 
his  own  ethics  and  his  own  psychology.  One  lesson 
a  week  throughout  the  four  high-school  years  will 
ground  the  pupils  in  essential  self-knowledge,  and  will 
work  into  their  lives  the  best  things.  In  another 
decade,  educators  will  wonder  at  the  strange  neglect 
of  self-study  in  our  nineteenth-century  high  schools. 

4.  Philosophy.     Philosophic  methods  characterize 
college  work.     In  the  conduct  group  of  studies  the 
practical  ethics  and  elementary  psychology  of  the  high 
school  become  the  psychology,  the  ethics,  the  logic,  and 
the  philosophy  of  the  college.     For  convenience  we  call 
this  master  group  of  studies  philosophy.     The  college 
student  learns  to  make  larger  and  larger  syntheses  until 
he  is  able  to  think  of  all  the  sciences  and  of  all  knowl- 


314  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

edge  as  a  unit.  Led  by  masters,  he  finds  out  what 
the  universe  is,  and  what  men  have  thought  and 
achieved,  and  slowly  creates  for  himself  his  own  phi- 
losophy. It  must  be  best  to  give  to  philosophy  two 
weekly  recitation  periods  throughout  the  college  years. 
Conduct  ideals  may  thus  become  cosmic ;  life  plans 
may  thus  be  projected  on  higher  planes ;  high  en- 
deavour may  thus  get  to  be  habitual. 

METHODS  IN  TEACHING  PRACTICAL  RELIGION. 

Man  is  a  religious  being.  The  conduct  cycle  em- 
braces self,  others,  God.  Complete  living  is  cosmic. 
All  men  love  Jesus,  for  he  loved  all  men.  The 
best  in  all  men  is  found  in  Jesus.  He  lived  the 
one  perfect  life,  and  taught  the  one  perfect  moral 
code.  Because  we  think  of  religion  as  sectarian,  as 
creed,  as  dogma,  we  exclude  it  from  our  schools ;  but 
practical  religion,  the  life  of  Jesus,  is  as  broad  as  the 
race.  Many  object  to  formal  religious  teaching  in  our 
schools,  but  in  all  the  world  is  there  an  enlightened 
man  who  does  not  approve  of  getting  the  lessons  of 
the  great  Teacher  into  the  hearts  and  lives  of  our 
pupils  ?  May  not  this  be  found  to  be  the  solution  of 
the  problem  of  religion  in  our  schools  ?  Practical  re- 
ligion is  to  live  as  Jesus  lived.  The  life  of  Jesus  in 
our  schools  would  almost  infinitely  elevate  the  aspira- 
tions and  conduct  of  our  pupils. 

By  stories,  by  opening  songs,  by  verses  read,  we 
lead  our  pupils  to  think  of  Jesus  as  their  best  friend. 
Somehow  \ve  lead  them  to  say  from  the  heart,  "  Give 
us  this  day  our  daily  bread,"  and  to  feel  grateful  for 
all  good  things.  As  the  child  asks  its  mother  to  for- 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  CONDUCT  TEACHING.   315 

give,  so  the  pupil  comes  to  ask  his  best  Friend  to  for- 
give. The  past  faults  pardoned,  each  morning  the 
pupil  begins  a  new  life  and  tries  to  live  a  better  life. 
Herein  is  law  of  moral  betterment.  The  teacher  tries 
to  live  as  Jesus  lived,  and  so  teaches  by  example  and 
gentle  words  and  kind  acts.  In  the  opening  songs  the 
pupils  sing  practical  religion  into  their  hearts.  Teacher 
and  pupils  repeat  or  chant  the  prayer  that  Jesus  taught 
his  pupils  to  say.  There  is  no  formality,  no  cant,  no 
dogma ;  but  somehow  the  pupils  come  to  feel  the  emo- 
tions of  worship,  the  highest  and  most  elevating  of  all 
emotions.  Our  public  schools  are  weak  in  practical 
religious  teaching.  Because  of  the  misapprehension 
that  religious  teaching  is  necessarily  sectarian,  the 
tendency  is  to  secularize  our  schools  and  leave  religion 
to  the  family  and  the  Church.  The  larger  proportion 
of  our  pupils  are  thus  deprived  of  the  most  vital  ele- 
ment in  conduct  culture.  In  some  way  the  family, 
the  school,  and  the  Church  should  come  to  work  to- 
gether to  get  the  best  into  the  lives  of  the  young. 
The  life  and  the  lessons  of  the  great  Teacher  seem  to 
meet  all  the  conditions.  Catholic  and  Protestant, 
Jew  and  gentile,  atheist  and  theist,  may  build  to- 
gether on  the  Rock  of  Ages. 

PRACTICAL  CULTURE  OF  THE  MORAL  VIRTUES. 

Ethical  Culture  must  be  ingrained.  —  Conduct 
springs  from  within.  Ethics  can  not  be  taught  from 
the  outside.  Ethical  training  can  not  be  something 
of  extraneous  character,  but  must  be  an  integral  part 
of  the  every  exercise  of  daily  life — the  atmosphere 
in  which  one  lives — the  spirit  which  one  breathes. 


316  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

With  tins  view  of  the  question,  the  public  schools  are 
pre-eminently  the  place  where  opportunity  is  given 
for  character  growing ;  and  if  in  any  respect  the  out- 
put has  heretofore  been  unsatisfactory,  it  behooves 
the  people  to  be  awake  to  the  necessity  of  providing 
conditions  that  will  make  all  the  more  powerful  this 
fundamental  factor  of  the  American  republic. 

Ethical  Culture  comes  of  doing. — There  is  ethical 
value  in  activity  ;  contrast  the  lives  of  the  active  and 
the  idle.  There  is  ethical  value  in  order ;  order  is 
law-abiding,  and  disorder  is  law-violating.  There  is 
ethical  value  in  habit ;  habit  makes  or  damns.  There 
is  ethical  value  in  association ;  not  the  monastery,  but 
social  life  develops  the  noblest  characters ;  Lincolns 
and  Gladstones  grow  amid  the  white  heat  of  battle. 
There  is  ethical  value  in  culture ;  the  best  in  litera- 
ture and  science  and  art  is  ethical;  compare  cultured 
people  with  uncultured.  There  is  ethical  value  in 
rational  recreation  ;  play  is  sunshine,  is  divine. 

Virtuous  Peoples  teach  the  Possibilities  of  Moral 
Culture. — As  we  go  to  the  Spartans  to  learn  the  pos- 
sibilities of  physical  culture,  and  to  the  Athenians  to 
learn  the  possibilities  of  aesthetic  culture,  so  we  go  to 
the  peoples  who  have  exalted  the  moral  virtues  to 
learn  the  possibilities  of  ethical  culture.  History  and 
biography  present  marvellous  object  lessons  in  point. 
The  savage  is  a  savage  from  habit,  for  savagery  is  in 
the  line  of  least  resistance.  The  unthinking  masses 
move  round  and  round  in  the  treadmill  of  custom,  for 
this  is  easier  than  independent  action. 

1.  The  Jews  teach  us  Fidelity.  For  centuries  it 
has  cost  much  to  be  a  Jew,  and  the  story  of  the  Wan- 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  CONDUCT  TEACHING.  317 

dering  Jew  is  a  striking  object  lesson  of  the  virtue  of 
fidelity  to  enlightened  conviction.  Fidelity  grows 
into  a  fixed  habit.  Through  all  the  centuries  the 
profound  belief  in  Jehovah  and  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  has  made  the  Jewish  people  a  perpetual 
miracle. 

2.  The  Scotch    teach   us  Integrity.     Go    to   the 
homes,  the  schools,  and  the  kirks    of  Scotland,  and 
you  find  that  integrity  in  things  great  and  small  is 
every  way  inculcated.     The  Scotch  are  a  living  ob- 
ject lesson"  in  the  practical  culture  of  the  moral  vir- 
tues ;  the  Bible  is  the  moral  text-book  in  the  schools 
of  Scotland. 

3.  The  Quaker  teaches  us  Truthfulness.    His  word 
stands  for  more  than  the  oaths  of  other  men.     Early 
and  always,  the  Quaker    child   and   youth  learns  to 
love  truth,  and  speak  and  act  truth. 

4.  The  World's  Moral  Heroes  teach  us  the  Moral 
Virtues.     We  study  the  life  of  Jesus  as  the  one  per- 
fect life.     We  study  the  lives  of  the  best  women  and 
men,  that  we  may  discover  how  they  grew  into  moral 
greatness ;   and  herein  sacred  and  classic  history  and 
literature  must  be  counted  at  their  highest  value. 

Ethical  Environments  favour  Ethical  Culture. — A 
moral  atmosphere  conditions  the  growth  of  the  moral 
virtues.  A  sturdy  moral  manhood  is  almost  impossi- 
ble in  the  midst  of  moral  pestilence.  Our  first  care 
should  be  to  remove  alluring  temptations  and  degrad- 
ing influences.  Moral  seclusions  are  very  necessary. 
The  second  care  should  be  to  throw  around  the  child 
and  youth  all  favouring  influences.  Helpful  environ- 
ments, helpful  literature,  helpful  society,  helpful  work, 


318  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

are  of  incalculable  value.  Our  third  care  should  be  to 
incite  high  purposes  and  earnest  work.  The  idle 
classes,  rich  and  poor,  are  our  moral  lepers. 

Ethical  Habits  are  of  Highest  Value. — Moral  ances- 
try tends  to  morality,  and  practical  ethics  may  gain 
valuable  lessons  from  the  study  of  heredity.  The 
little  child  realizes  that  it  ought  to  obey  its  parents. 
This  impulse  to  obey  because  it  ought  is  conscience. 
The  child  thus  early  gains  the  intuition  of  right,  and 
begins  to  do  moral  acts.  The  greatest  thing  in  educa- 
tion is  the  development  of  the  habit  of  doing  what  we 
believe  we  ought  to  do.  This  is  the  education  of 
conscience. 

Duty  is  the  Keynote  in  Ethical  Culture.— The 
millions  pitch  the  tune  of  human  conduct  too  low. 
They  ask,  "Will  it  give  me  pleasure?"  "Will  it 
pay  ?  "  "  Is  it  good  policy  ? "  The  consequent  moral 
degradation  is  appalling.  But  duty  is  the  keynote  of 
every  grand  life.  Conscience  stands  for  duty,  for  it 
is  our  capability  to  feel  duty  impulses.  Find  right, 
choose  right,  do  right,  enjoy  right,  are  the  mandates 
of  conscience.  As  the  needle  points  to  the  pole,  so 
conscience  prompts  each  one  to  do  duty  as  he  under- 
stands it.  Here  all  vital  moral  culture  has  its  root. 
From  infancy  to  age,  the  greatest  thing  in  education 
is  so  to  foster  the  ethical  impulses  that  they  shall  be- 
come practically  imperative  in  controlling  human  con- 
duct. The  noblest  work  of  God  is  a  man  who,  from 
principle  and  from  habit,  does  what  he  deems  is  right. 
The  highest  work  of  the  educator  is  the  development 
of  such  men  and  women. 


THE  LANGUAGE-LITERATURE  OF  STUDIES.    319 


CHAPTEK  XXVII. 

EFFICIENT    METHODS    OF   TEACHING    THE    LANGUAGE- 
LITERATURE    GROUP    OF    STUDIES. 

Teaching  and  Learning  Processes  are  ever  the 
Same. — Child  and  man  discriminate  and  assimilate, 
perceive  and  apperceive,  analyze  and  synthetize,  in- 
duct and  deduce.  But  the  child  thinks  as  a  child  and 
the  man  as  a  man.  Teaching  leads  the  child  to  make 
its  feeble  efforts  in  such  ways  as  to  gain  power  through 
mastery.  Teaching  leads  girls  and  boys  to  make  more 
vigorous  efforts,  and  so  to  gain  greater  power  through 
greater  mastery.  The  wise  teacher  adapts  his  meth- 
ods to  the  pupils  and  to  the  conditions. 

Languages  and  Literatures. — Modern  insight  into 
the  essential  unity  of  literature  and  language  has 
revolutionized  our  methods  in  language-literature 
teaching.  We  teach  language  in  teaching  literature, 
and  literature  in  teaching  language.  We  study  lan- 
guage and  literature  rather  than  languages  and  lit- 
eratures. The  study  of  foreign  classics  re-enforces 
the  study  of  English  classics.  The  most  hurtful 
mistake  of  the  past  was  the  divorcement  of  studies 
organically  one. 

Courses  in  Language-Literature. — Schools  and  col- 
leges are  steadily  working  up  to  as  satisfactory  and 
connected  courses  of  study  in  English  as  in  mathe- 
matics. The  work  in  the  elementary  school  fits  into 
the  work  of  the  high  school,  and  the  work  in  the 
high  school  fits  into  the  work  of  the  college. 


320  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


The  Language-Literature  Group  of  Studies. 


Elementary  schools. 

Secondary  schools. 

Colleges. 

Eng- 
lish" 

1.  Reading. 
2.  Literature. 
3.  Language. 
4.  Composition. 

Eng- 
lish' 

1.  Expression. 
2.  Literature. 
3.  Language. 
4.  Rhetoric. 

f  1.  Expression. 
Eng-J  2.  Literature, 
lish  ]  3.  Language. 
1  4.  Rhetoric. 

For- 

Languages 
and 

For- 

Languages 
and 

For-  (Languages 
•\        and 

eign 

literatures. 

eign 

literatures. 

^[literatures. 

The  language-literature  studies  are  conceded  double 
the  recitation  time  of  other  study  groups ;  this  con- 
cession, more  than  all  arguments,  emphasizes  the  be- 
lief in  the  value  of  this  group  of  studies.  In  a  brief 
chapter  it  is  fitting  that  attention  should  be  particu- 
larly directed  to  methods  of  teaching  English  in  our 
elementary  schools  ;  but  we  must  have  in  view  the 
advanced  work,  and  the  fact  that,  after  the  sixth  school 
year,  the  study  of  other  languages  goes  on  side  by  side 
with  that  of  our  own. 

Special  Programme  in  Language-Literature  Studies.— 
The  general  programmes  give  to  this  group  of  stud- 
ies, in  all  schools  below  the  college,  two  daily  recita- 
tion periods.  Well-considered  special  programmes, 
however,  are  most  important.  Each  teacher  must  con- 
struct such  a  programme  for  herself,  but  suggestions 
sometimes  help.  In  the  first  and  second  grades  the 
time  may  be  divided  about  equally  between  the  read- 
ing lessons  and  the  language  lessons.  During  the 
third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  years  the  recitations  in 
reading  and  literature  may  alternate,  as  may  the  les- 
sons in  language  and  composition.  In  the  seventh 


THE  LANGUAGE-LITERATURE  OF  STUDIES.    321 

and  eighth  grades  and  in  the  high-school  classes  one 
daily  period  may  be  devoted  to  English  and  one  to 
a  foreign  language ;  the  work  in  English  during 
these  six  years  must  be  judiciously  proportioned  to 
teaching  expression,  literature,  language,  and  compo- 
sition. Continuity  and  unity  are  the  important 
things.  The  movement  to  begin  Latin  or  a  modern 
language  in  the  seventh  grade  tends  to  become 
general. 

Organic  Unity  of  the  Studies  in  English. — "  As  to 
modern  methods,  the  best  of  all  is  the  teaching  of  the 
four  related  topics  of  expression,  literature,  language, 
and  rhetoric  as  one  organic  group  of  studies,  wholly 
interdependent  and  progressive."  From  the  kinder- 
garten to  the  university  this  is  one  of  the  most  fruit- 
ful educational  movements  of  our  times.  In  school 
and  college  the  learner  at  every  step  is  led  to  pursue 
these  studies  as  essentially  one  branch,  and  as  inti- 
mately related  to  all  other  studies.  Specialization  is 
a  great  educational  device,  but  it  has  its  helpful  limits. 
It  hurts  when  the  specialist  is  narrow  ;  it  hurts  when 
a  strong  specialist  unduly  pushes  his  specialty ;  it 
hurts  when  special  teachers  fail  to  work  together  as 
a  teaching  unit.  In  schools  in  which  one  compe- 
tent instructor  teaches  all  the  branches  the  unity  of 
the  work  is  secured  ;  but  in  specialized  intermediate 
schools,  in  high  schools,  and  in  colleges  there  needs 
to  be  wise  concentration.  One  mind  must  direct ; 
the  teacher  of  expression,  the  teacher  of  literature, 
the  teacher  of  language,  and  the  teacher  of  rhetoric 
must  work  as  a  teaching  unit — all  supplement  the  work 
of  each. 


322  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

Teachers  of  English. — Thorough  preparation  is  in- 
dispensable. To-day  it  is  easier  to  find  twenty  good 
Latin  teachers  than  one  good  teacher  of  English. 
But  the  outlook  is  cheering.  In  our  high  schools  and 
colleges,  English  is  now  made  the  equivalent  of  the 
classics.  The  faculty  in  English  of  a  certain  college  now 
numbers  twenty-five  instructors.  No  other  group  of 
studies  requires  broader  culture  or  more  thorough 
special  preparation  for  teaching.  "With  efficient  teach- 
ers of  English  in  our  elementary  schools,  our  pupils 
will  be  started  right  and  will  be  led  to  lay  the  best  of 
all  foundations  for  life  work  and  advanced  work. 

The  Library  in  teaching  English. — What  the  labora- 
tory is  in  science,  the  library  is  in  English.  Even  in 
the  primary  the  library  is  remarkably  helpful. 

"  Each  teacher,"  says  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  "  should  be  furnished 
with  a  dozen  copies  each  of  three  or  four  volumes  of  selections 
from  the  best  of  classic  authors,  the  selection  being  made  from 
what  is  most  attractive  to  children.  These  should  be  loaned  for 
home  reading  to  those  pupils  who  prove  that  they  have  time  to 
spare  for  supplementary  reading  by  learning  well  the  regular  les- 
sons assigned  them  in  school.  Such  books  of  good  literature  and 
history  are  likely  to  be  read  at  home  not  only  by  the  pupils,  but 
by  the  parents  and  older  brothers  and  sisters,  and  thus  accomplish 
manifold  good.  When  the  set  of  books  in  one  room  is  pretty  well 
finished  by  the  pupils  in  that  room,  exchange  may  be  made  with 
the  next  room,  and  different  authors  obtained." 

The  library  becomes  more  and  more  helpful  as  the 
pupils  advance.  Please  read  again  as  a  part  of  this 
paragraph  School  Libraries,  Chapter  IX. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  READING  AND  EXPRESSION. 

Reading  is  the  key  to  treasured  knowledge,  and  is 
the  greatest  art  taught  in  the  schools.  We  sometimes 


THE  LANGUAGE-LITERATURE  OF  STUDIES.    323 

group  the  school  studies  with  reference  to  use  as  in- 
formation studies,  disciplinary  studies,  and  culture 
studies ;  in  each  group  the  good  readers  greatly  sur- 
pass the  poor  ones.  In  its  broad  sense,  reading  in- 
cludes ability  to  call  the  words,  grasp  the  meaning, 
and  express  the  sentiment. 

Beading  must  be  made  a  Special  Study. — Teaching  reading  in- 
cidentally is  like  teaching  algebra  incidentally.  "  The  reform  of 
the  reading  lesson  through  'supplementary  reading'  is  the  one 
that  I  find  most  liable  to  abuse.  Many  teachers  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  conducting  lessons  in  reading  as  a  mere  test  of  the  pupil's 
acquired  ability  to  read  at  sight,  and  not  as  a  means  of  instruct- 
ing the  pupil  how  to  read  well.  They  have  accordingly  given  the 
child  no  lesson  to  study  and  prepare  for  the  recitation,  but  have 
kept  the  reading  book  away  from  him  until  the  hour  of  actual 
trial.  Then  the  books  are  suddenly  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
pupils,  and  they  are  expected  to  '  read  at  sight.'  They  read  what 
they  have  not  studied  or  seen  before.  The  books,  too,  are  not  car- 
ried home  by  the  pupils  to  be  read  in  the  family,  nor  are  they 
studied  by  the  pupils  at  school.  Only  one  step  further  could  be 
taken  in  this  dire  reaction — namely,  entirely  to  abolish  instruction 
in  reading  and  expect  the  pupil  to  read  newspapers  and  books  *  at 
sight '  whenever  he  has  occasion  to  do  so  in  after  life.  I  think  it  is 
clear  enough  that  reading  resembles  any  other  branch  of  instruc- 
tion, and  is  to  be  learned  by  study,  and  study  too  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil.  The  teacher  must  teach  pupils  self-help.  Unless  some- 
thing is  given  for  the  pupil  to  prepare  in  reading,  the  teacher  can 
not  hold  him  responsible  for  results,  and  we  have  simply  what  is 
called  a  '  pouring-in '  process,  or  the  old-fashioned,  long  since  dis- 
carded habit  of  '  reading  round,'  which  was  a  mere  calling  of  words 
and  a  correction  of  pronunciation." — W.  T.  HARRIS. 

Methods  of  teaching  Primary  Reading. — How  can 
we  best  teach  the  little  ones  to  read  ?  How  can  we 
make  learning  to  read  a  delight  as  well  as  educative  ? 
We  study  the  child.  How  does  the  baby  learn  to 
talk  ?  Just  as  he  learns  to  walk.  As  the  automatic 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

muscular  movements  grow  into  willed  acts,  so  the  in- 
stinctive cries  develop  into  intelligent  expression. 
Instinct  and  imitation  and  growing  intelligence  are 
the  factors.  As  the  infant  learns  to  talk  so  the  child 
learns  to  read  ;  it  learns  to  recognise  written  words  as 
signs  of  ideas  just  as  it  comes  to  recognise  spoken 
words  as  symbols  of  things. 

First  Step. — We  teach  the  children  to  find  out 
and  to  tell  about  things.  The  kindergarten  does  this 
work  admirably.  The  wise  primary  teacher  keeps 
the  beginner  for  weeks,  and  sometimes  for  months,  in 
this  preparatory  work.  There  must  be  no  hurry.  To 
get  the  children  ready  to  take  the  next  step  is  a  great 
thing  in  teaching. 

Second  Step. — We  lead  the  children  to  recognise 
written  words  as  the  symbols  of  ideas.  Only  words 
familiar  to  the  ear  are  introduced  at  first,  and  upright 
script  is  used,  because  it  is  easier,  plainer,  and  more 
like  print.  Reading  is  now  the  central  study,  and  all 
other  lessons  re-enforce  the  reading  lesson.  The  new 
word  is  Mrd ;  the  science  lesson  is  about  birds ;  the 
language  lesson  gets  the  pupils  to  talk  about  birds ; 
the  literature  lesson  is  a  story  about  birds ;  the  draw- 
ing lesson  leads  the  children  to  make  pictures  of  birds  ; 
the  writing  lesson  teaches  the  pupils  to  write  the  word 
birds ;  the  number  lesson  asks  how  many  birds.  The 
reading  lesson  is  devoted  strictly  to  teaching  reading, 
and  the  word  bird  is  used  with  words  previously 
learned  in  easy  sentences.  From  the  first  the  pupils 
read  as  they  talk,  because  the  written  words  are  as 
familiar  as  the  spoken  words.  When  the  pupils  are 
ready  for  it,  printed  as  well  as  script  words  are  used. 


THE  LANGUAGE-LITERATURE  OP  STUDIES.    325 

This  is  the  essential  step ;  there  should  be  great  dis- 
cretion and  sufficient  time ;  hurry  at  this  stage  is  inex- 
cusable. In  the  language  lesson,  when  prepared  for 
it,  the  pupils  are  taught  to  sound  as  well  as  write 
familiar  words. 

Third  Step. — The  pupils  are  led  to  read  well  choice 
child  literature.  Our  school  readers,  as  a  rule,  fur- 
nish suitable  reading  lessons,  but  it  is  best  to  supple- 
ment the  readers  by  the  library.  To  teach  the  pupils 
how  to  read  and  what  to  read,  and  to  develop  a  taste 
for  the  best  literature  is,  next  to  conduct,  the  great- 
est work  of  the  primary  school. 

Helps  in  teaching  Primary  Beading.  —  Detailed 
methods  would  be  out  of  place  here,  but  we  do  most 
for  teachers  when  we  place  in  their  hands  excellent 
manuals  by  great  teachers.  We  are  especially  rich  iii 
helps  for  teaching  primary  reading.  For  some  dec- 
ades we  have  been  passing  through  the  methods 
epoch.  We  began  with  the  A-B-C  method  ;  then  we 
had  the  phonic  and  phonetic  method ;  then  we  had 
the  word  method  ;  then  we  had  the  sentence  method ; 
then  we  had  the  look-and-say  method ;  then  we  had 
the — but  it  is  needless  to  enumerate  all ;  each  had  its 
merits,  did  its  work,  and  passed  away.  We  now  have 
in  lieu  of  all  the  special  methods  what  is  termed  the 
combined  method,  or  the  natural  method,  or  the 
eclectic  method,  or  the  rational  method.  We  teach 
our  pupils  to  read  ;  whatever  has  been  found  helpful 
is  utilized.  I  have  found  two  classes  of  books  sug- 
gestive and  helpful :  first  readers  and  manuals  of 
methods.  Our  standard  first  readers  with  the  sug- 
gestions of  authors  are  very  valuable.  Dr.  Stanley 


326  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

Hall's  How  to  teach  Heading  is  full  of  good  things  ; 
Dr.  Hinsdale's  Teaching  the  Language  Arts  has  sev- 
eral valuable  chapters  on  teaching  reading;  Prof. 
Sinclair's  First  Years  at  School  and  A.  H.  Garlick's 
Manual  of  Method  must  prove  of  great  value  to 
teachers.  Of  the  many  excellent  manuals,  teachers 
must  select  two  or  three  and  study  them  as  suggestive 
helps.  The  school  journals  reflect  the  living  present, 
and  give  us  the  freshest  and  best  things  in  methods 
and  devices. 

Methods  in  teaching  Expression. — Reading  in  the 
elementary  school  becomes  expression  in  the  high 
school  and  the  college.  We  think  of  expression  as 
the  crowning  excellence  of  the  course  of  study  in 
English.  That  it  should  be  said  that  conversation 
and  good  reading  are  lost  arts  is  a  severe  criticism  on 
our  methods  of  teaching  English.  From  the  primary 
to  the  university  the  study  of  literature  and  the  cul- 
ture of  expression  should  go  on  together.  The  reac- 
tion against  a  boisterous  elocution  has  worked  the 
neglect  of  expression  and  even  its  omission  from  the 
courses  of  study  in  English  in  many  of  our  high 
schools  and  colleges ;  but  the  renaissance  is  begin- 
ning; expression  and  language  and  literature  and 
composition,  in  the  future,  will  surely  be  studied  as 
organically  one  branch. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

Education  prepares  pupils  to  be  their  utmost 
through  character,  and  to  do  their  utmost  through 
knowledge.  History  and  literature  do  most  to  pro- 


THE  LANGUAGE-LITERATURE  OP  STUDIES.    327 

mote  these  ends.  When  properly  taught,  they  infuse 
high  ideals,  refine,  and  ennoble.  They  ground  pupils 
in  morals  and  manners,  in  taste,  in  religion,  in  good 
citizenship.  That  these  studies  have  not  thus  been 
taught  must  be  admitted ;  that  they  may  be  so  taught 
as  to  make  for  good  conduct  is  now  being  demon- 
strated in  many  schools.  From  the  primary  to  the 
college  efficient  methods  in  teaching  literature  are 
demanded. 

English  Literature  stands  Pre-eminent. — "When  the 
conceptions  of  an  individual  mind  are  expressed  in  a 
permanent  form  of  words,  we  get  literature."  In  the 
greatest  works  we  have  the  best  thought  with  the 
highest  beauty  of  conception  and  expression  ;  we  have 
apples  of  gold  in  pictures  of  silver.  English  litera- 
ture is  surpassingly  rich.  It  includes  the  pre-eminent 
creations  of  English-speaking  authors,  and  the  world's 
choicest  classics  transformed  into  classic  English.  In 
a  hundred  convenient  volumes  our  English-speak- 
ing youth  may  have  the  best  literature  produced  by 
the  race. 

Bad  Methods  of  teaching  Literature. — Literature 
was  not  studied ;  in  Shaw's  Manual  and  similar  text- 
books the  history  of  literature,  rather  than  literature, 
was  taught.  Pursuing  the  methods  of  the  classical 
teachers  has  been  even  a  greater  mistake.  "  Classical 
teachers  tend  to  lay  the  stress  on  the  grammatical  and 
philological  elements  of  the  classics,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  literary  elements.  Most  unfortunately,  the 
classical  teacher  has  stood  as  the  model  of  the  litera- 
ture teacher.  It  has  been  assumed  that  English  litera- 
ture should  be  made  to  answer  the  same  educational 


328  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

ends  as  foreign  languages,  and  methods  of  teaching 
literature  have  been  chosen  with  reference  to  that 
ideal.  The  assumption  is  false  and  the  methods  are 
vicious." — [B.  A.  Hinsdale.] 

Modern  Methods  of  teaching  Literature. — Literature 
is  taught.  Our  best  classical  teachers  now  place  the 
stress  on  the  literature.  Our  best  English  teachers  do 
not  now  conceal  the  literature  by  their  criticisms  and 
comments.  The  pupil  is  led  to  study  literature  and 
to  get  out  of  it  all  there  is  in  it  for  him.  In  the  lan- 
guage and  the  composition  lessons  and  the  expression 
lessons,  all  helpful  topics  are  studied  ;  but  in  the  liter- 
ature lessons  literature  is  studied,  and  is  so  taught  as 
to  accomplish  its  mission. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  LANGUAGE. 

The  educator  differentiates  as  well  as  concentrates. 
"We  teach  as  an  organic  unit  literature,  language,  com- 
position, and  expression  ;  but  in  teaching  one  of  these 
studies  we  subordinate  the  others.  In  the  language 
lesson  we  lead  the  pupils  to  form  habits  of  correct 
oral  and  written  expression,  correct  spelling  and  pro- 
nunciation, correct  capitalization,  and  correct  punctu- 
ation. "We  teach  in  the  language  lessons  phonetics 
and  word  analysis,  and  the  pupils  are  taught  to 
use  dictionaries.  In  these  lessons  we  prepare  the 
pupils  for  the  lessons  in  reading,  in  literature,  and 
in  composition.  "We  quarry  and  polish  the  stones 
which  are  to  be  built  into  the  temple.  The  immense 
importance  of  these  lessons  is  apparent.  As  the  pu- 
pils advance,  we  lead  them  to  discover  the  elements 


THE  LANGUAGE-LITERATURE  OF  STUDIES.    329 

in  the  sentence  and  to  distinguish  the  parts  of  speech. 
During  the  seventh  and  eighth  school  years  we  use  a 
suitable  modern  text-book  in  English  grammar.  In 
place  of  detailed  methods,  I  submit  as  a  part  of  this 
paragraph,  Teaching  the  Language  Arts,  the  able 
work  of  Dr.  B.  A.  Hinsdale.  Teachers  are  recom- 
mended to  study  also  one  or  more  of  the  excellent 
language-lesson  manuals. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  COMPOSITION. 

The  study  of  English  culminates  in  the  composi- 
tion. The  science  lessons  and  the  history  lessons  and 
the  literature  lessons  furnish  information.  The  lan- 
guage lessons  give  the  pupil  command  of  the  sentence. 
The  composition  lessons,  oral  and  written,  teach  the 
pupils  to  tell  in  good  form  what  they  know.  The 
reading  lessons  prepare  pupils  to  read  well  their  own 
compositions. 

The  Old  and  the  New. — In  the  old  education  the 
composition  writing  was  a  dread  ;  in  the  new  educa- 
tion composition  writing  is  a  delight.  In  the  old, 
pupils  were  fed  on  husks,  and  were  required  to  make 
bricks  without  straw ;  in  the  new,  the  science  lessons, 
the  literature  lessons,  and  the  history  lessons  make 
the  pupils  rich  in  subject-matter.  In  the  old,  the  pu- 
pil was  cramped  by  rules ;  in  the  new,  pupils  are  free 
to  tell  in  their  own  ways,  but  are  led  to  tell  in  good 
form.  In  the  old,  the  pupils  were  confined  to  the 
text-book  ;  in  the  new,  the  school  library  supplements 
the  text-book,  and  does  most  to  cultivate  good  Eng- 
lish. 


330  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

Nature  Studies  and  Composition. — During  the  pri- 
mary years  the  science  lessons  and  the  composition 
lessons  supplement  each  other.  Children  take  delight 
in  telling  what  they  find  out.  Oral  composition  pre- 
pares for  written  composition.  While  the  science  les- 
sons are  made  the  basis  of  the  early  composition  work, 
we  constantly  utilize  the  history  lessons  and  the  liter- 
ature lessons  to  the  great  interest  and  profit  of  the 
pupils. 


CHAPTEE  XXVIII. 

EFFICIENT   METHODS    OF    TEACHING    SCIENCE. 

BY  the  science  studies  is  meant  the  information 
studies  relating  to  the  physical  world.  In  our  ele- 
mentary schools  we  designate  the  science  group  of 
studies  as  Nature  studies.  The  marvellous  growth 
of  modern  science  increases  the  danger  of  overcrowd- 
ing our  school  courses.  Teaching  science  rather  than 
sciences  is  thought  to  be  the  safe  preventive.  Teach- 
ers are  coming  to  consider  the  Nature  studies  as 
organically  one  branch  of  school  work.  The  aim  is 
to  so  teach  essentials  as  to  prepare  pupils  to  be- 
come independent  in  their  efforts  to  gain  a  mas- 
tery over  the  material  universe.  There  must  be  no 
hurry,  no  crowding ;  we  must  so  teach  a  few  things 
as  to  educate  our  pupils  to  work  independently  and 
find  out  all  things. 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE.  331 


The  Committee  of  Fifteen  say :  "  It  is  very  im- 
portant to  have  the  science  studies  cover  as  fully  as 
possible  all  the  provinces  of  Nature.  There  is  the 
inorganic  province,  containing  the  two  fields  of  as- 
tronomy and  physics;  and  there  is  the  organic  or 
biological  province,  including  botany  and  zoology." 
In  practical  school  work  the  three  lines  of  Na- 
ture study  cover  these  provinces.  The  educational 
world  of  to-day  agrees  substantially  in  the  following 
scheme : 

Science  Group  of  Studies. 


Elementary  schools. 

Secondary  schools. 

Colleges. 

Geography,      oral 
astronomy. 
Oral  biology,  oral 
hygiene. 
Oral  physics,  oral 
chemistry. 

Physical  geography,  ele- 
mentary astronomy. 
Elementary  biology,  ele- 
mentary physiology. 
Elementary  physics,  ele- 
mentary chemistry. 

Physiography,     geol- 
ogy, astronomy. 
Advanced  biology,  ad- 
vanced physiology. 
Physics,  chemistry. 

Each  of  the  three  lines  of  science  work  is  continu- 
ous ;  the  geography  and  oral  astronomy  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  become  the  physical  geography  and 
elementary  astronomy  of  the  high  school,  and  the 
physiography,  geology,  and  astronomy  of  the  college. 
Biology  and  physics  progress  side  by  side  with  geog- 
raphy. The  fact  that  the  science  group  of  studies  has 
been  accorded  co-ordinate  rank  with  language  and 
mathematics  best  expresses  the  conviction  of  educators 
as  to  its  educative  value.  The  scientific  method  is 
revolutionary  ;  good  science  teaching  tends  to  vitalize 
all  teaching.  The  practical  value  of  the  Nature  studies 
is  so  great  that  they  are  called  the  bread-and-butter 


332  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

studies.  As  we  come  to  pursue  efficient  methods  in 
teaching  these  studies  their  great  culture  value  be- 
comes apparent.  The  culture  is  different  but  none 
the  less  necessary.  We  do  well  to  magnify  the  edu- 
cational value  of  the  science  studies. 


SPECIAL  PROGRAMMES  FOR  NATURE  STUDIES. 

In  all  schools  below  the  college  one  daily  recita- 
tion period  is  devoted  to  the  science  studies.  What 
to  teach,  and  when  to  teach  it,  and  how  to  teach  it  are 
the  vital  considerations. 

Each  teacher,  after  careful  study,  constructs  a 
special  programme  for  science  work.  The  best  things 
are  selected,  proportioned,  co-ordinated,  correlated. 
Here,  as  everywhere,  the  teacher  is  entitled  to  the 
best  suggestive  helps.  The  following  manuals  for 
teachers  will  prove  especially  helpful  both  in  making 
programmes  and  in  teaching  elementary  science : 

Nature  Study  and  the  Child,  by  Prof.  C.  B.  Scott.  D.  C.  Heath 
&  Co.,  Boston. 

Nature  Studies,  by  Prof.  W.  S.  Jackman.  Henry  Holt  &  Co., 
New  York. 

Systematic  Science  Teaching,  by  Prof.  E.  G.  Howe.  D.  Ap- 
pleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 

These  educators  have  literally  worked  out  ascend- 
ing spiral  programmes  covering  all  the  ground.  The 
appropriate  work  for  each  month  of  each  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  years  is  outlined  and  illustrated.  The 
Nature  studies  are  skilfully  correlated,  and  the  dis- 
cussion of  matter  and  methods  will  greatly  assist 
teachers.  With  these  and  similar  aids  it  is  now  pos- 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE.  333 

sible  for  a  teacher  to  make  a  judicious  special  pro- 
gramme for  the  several  studies,  and,  with  these 
aids,  she  may  be  able  to  lead  pupils  to  do  the  most 
helpful  science  work. 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  pupil  is  led  to  study  the  earth  as  the  home 
of  man.  In  the  light  of  experience,  personal  and 
appropriated,  the  child  begins  to  create  his  world. 
Imagination  is  the  master  builder. 

1.  Central.      Geography  is  the  central  study  in 
the   elementary   science   group.      Pupils   are   led  to 
explore   their  environments    and   gain    geographical 
experience.     The    lessons    about  plants  and  animals 
and    rocks    and    stars    and  forces   are  naturally   en- 
twined with  the  geography  lessons. 

2.  Correlated.     Geography   assimilates    with    all 
other    studies.     Biology   is   its    twin    sister,   mathe- 
matics  is  its   ally,   history   and    civics    are    its    dy- 
namics.    All  other  studies  are  re-enforced  by  geog- 
raphy, and  geography  is  enriched  by  the  lessons  in 
the    other    studies.     But    in    the  geography  lessons 
geography  is   taught ;    everything   else   is   made   to 
help. 

3.  Manuals.     Not  many  decades  ago  the  teaching 
of  geography  in  our  schools  was  wretched.     A  great 
advance  has   been   made.      Teachers   are  coming  to 
know  what  to  teach  and  how  to  teach  it.     The  aids 
for  teaching  geography  are  now  abundant  and  excel- 
lent.     The  following  manuals  for  teachers  are  con- 
sidered peculiarly  helpful : 


334:  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

How  to  Study  and  Teach  Geography,  by  F.  W.  Parker.  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography,  by  C.  F.  King.  Lee  &  Shep- 
ard,  Boston. 

Manual  of  Methods  in  Geography,  by  A.  E.  Frye.  Ginn  & 
Co.,  Boston. 

Teachers  will  avail  themselves  of  the  many  valuable 
aids  that  the  years  are  furnishing  us.  Our  text-books 
in  geography,  as  well  as  our  geographical  apparatus 
and  our  manuals  for  teachers,  are  approaching  our 
ideals. 

4.  Primary  Methods.  Superintendent  H.  S.  Tar- 
bell  gives  us  some  valuable  suggestions  : 

"  Oral  geography  comes  first ;  the  subject  is  the  home — all  that 
comes  within  the  range  of  the  child's  senses.  This  should  come 
before  the  book.  This  home  study  furnishes  the  elements  for  all 
future  study  of  the  world.  Whenever  anything  new  is  to  be 
taught,  begin  at  home,  with  what  is  near  and  known.  When  you 
get  beyond  the  things  themselves,  then  go  to  pictures  and  maps, 
which  are  nearer  the  things  than  are  words.  Maps  should  be 
studied  largely,  early;  read  them,  picking  out  natural  features 
first — mountains,  rivers,  divides,  valleys,  plateaus,  are  very  im- 
portant ;  capes  are  for  the  most  part  of  little  importance.  Every 
child  should  have  a  globe  in  his  hand.  He  should  always  think 
of  the  world  as  a  globe.  Only  on  a  globe  can  he  learn  the  true 
direction  and  relative  sizes.  Maps  can  not  be  put  into  the  geog- 
raphy all  on  the  same  scale ;  but  every  map  should  have  a  scale 
attached,  so  many  miles  to  the  inch.  In  the  oral  lessons  the 
teacher  should  talk  about  familiar  things  first. 

"  When  we  come  to  the  book,  be  careful  not  to  misuse  it.  It  is 
the  first  book  which  the  pupil  really  studies,  where  he  learns  how 
to  learn ;  above  all,  he  should  not  memorize  the  text.  The 
child's  first  mode  of  learning  is  by  hearing;  the  ear  takes  in 
thought  more  directly  than  does  the  eye.  The  child  should  get 
the  thought  from  speech  before  he  gets  it  from  print.  Geography 
especially  helps  to  observe,  to  reflect;  it  is  a  complete  subject,  the 
essential  subject  for  methods.  The  most  stupid  thing  is  for  the 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE.  335 

teacher  to  write  things  on  the  blackboard,  and  have  the  children 
copy  them  in  notebooks.  In  giving  questions,  give  such  as  can 
be  answered  after  study,  but  not  literally  from  the  book.  Each 
lesson  should  start  with  review  questions. 

"  The  new  geography  is  that  of  forces,  of  how  things  have  come 
to  be,  of  movement.  This  is  the  first  part  of  the  study.  Later 
comes  descriptive  geography,  that  of  localities." 

METHODS  IN  BIOLOGY. 

Biology  stands  for  the  study  of  plants  and  animals. 
No  other  studies  awaken  so  much  educative  interest, 
or  so  fully  foster  pupil  growth.  As  a  means  for  edu- 
cating pupils  to  observe  and  classify,  these  studies 
stand  pre-eminent.  No  other  studies  so  naturally  and 
so  completely  assimilate  with  all  the  other  study 
groups. 

1.  Evolution.  Biology  was  not  thought  of  by 
the  old  schoolmaster.  The  crude  object  lessons,  an 
outgrowth  of  the  Pestalozzian  movement,  heralded 
the  beginning  of  better  things.  Nature  study  came 
as  the  fruit  of  insight  into  pupil  nature  and  pupil 
needs.  The  systematic  study  of  plants  and  animals  is 
a  marked  characteristic  of  the  new  education. 

In  the  near  past  no  attempt  was  made  by  the 
great  body  of  our  teachers  to  lead  pupils  to  study 
Nature.  As  the  century  closes,  all  teachers  are  try- 
ing to  lead  their  pupils  to  explore  the  beautiful 
realms  of  plant  and  animal  life.  As  a  rule,  the  teach- 
ing of  biology  at  present  is  far  from  satisfactory, 
but  it  is  a  beginning.  In  our  modern  high  schools 
the  science  teaching  by  specialists  is  a  delight.  Early 
in  the  twentieth  century  science  in  our  grammar 
schools  will  be  admirably  taught  by  intermediate 


33G  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

specialists.  Soon  our  primary  and  our  rural  teachers 
will  come  to  teach  biology  as  skilfully  as  they  now 
teach  reading  and  arithmetic. 

2.  Prepared  Teachers.  For  teaching  biology,  as 
thorough  preparation  is  required  as  for  teaching  Greek. 
First  of  all,  the  teacher  must  take  a  boundless  inter- 
est in  the  realms  of  organic  life.  Then,  under  skil- 
ful guidance,  the  teacher  must  explore  the  world  of 
plants  and  animals  and  gain  insight  into  the  economy 
of  organic  Nature.  Besides,  skill  in  the  art  of  teaching 
science  lessons  must  be  acquired.  At  present  we  must 
be  content  with  some  imperfect  work,  as  opportunities 
for  preparation  have  been  wanting.  The  outlook  is 
cheering.  Our  future  teachers  as  primary  pupils 
will  live  close  to  Nature.  Specialists  in  the  inter- 
mediate and  high  schools  will  lead  the  pupil  on 
to  mastery.  Able  instructors  in  the  normal  school 
will  train  the  pupils  to  teach  efficiently  the  Nature 
studies.  Our  educational  journals,  our  summer  nor- 
mals, and  our  faculty  work  will  keep  our  teachers 
advancing. 

Manuals.  We  are  becoming  rich  in  helpful 
manuals,  and  our  teachers  are  entitled  to  all  possible 
aids.  Think  of  it,  most  teachers  must  teach  all  school 
branches !  How  important  it  is  to  economize  every 
energy  !  Each  teacher  must  pursue  her  own  plans, 
but  a  really  excellent  manual  is  so  suggestive  and  so 
economical  that  I  submit  as  a  part  of  this  paragraph 
the  chapters  on  plants  and  animals  in  Howe's  System- 
atic Science  Teaching.  The  presentation  of  matter  and 
method  in  these  chapters  must  prove  of  inestimable 
value  to  the  teachers  of  our  elementary  schools.  The 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE.  337 

manuals  referred  to  on  page  332  are  especially  com- 
mended. 

Library.  The  science  teaching  in  our  elementary 
schools  is  strictly  oral,  but  pupils  are  led  to  learn 
from  books  as  well  as  from  Nature.  The  pupils  are 
led  to  read  books  of  exploration  and  travel,  and  books 
about  animals  and  plants.  The  library  supplements 
the  teaching  of  the  school. 

Correlation.  The  biology  lessons  seem  to  blend 
naturally  with  nearly  all  other  lessons.  They  enrich 
and  re-enforce  the  conduct  lessons ;  they  enter  into 
the  warp  and  woof  of  composition  and  literature; 
they  become  an  organic  part  of  all  other  Nature  les- 
sons ;  they  illustrate  and  apply  mathematics ;  they  are 
the  soul  of  art.  Nature  studies  enrich  the  entire 
work  of  teaching  and  enrich  human  life.  In  the  art 
of  teaching,  correlation  is  vital,  and  is  the  antidote 
both  to  waste  labour  in  education  and  to  overcrowding. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene.  As  an  important  part 
of  the  biology  work,  little  by  little  pupils  are  led  to 
understand  their  bodies,  and  are  trained  to  carry  hygi- 
enic laws  over  into  hygienic  habits.  The  few  lessons 
given  may  be  of  inestimable  value.  It  is  not  deemed 
best  to  unduly  extend  these  lessons  in  our  elementary 
schools.  In  the  primary  the  great  thing  is  to  secure 
hygienic  habits.  In  the  intermediate,  besides  fixing  all 
good  hygienic  habits,  the  pupils  are  led  to  gain  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  their  physical  organism  and  of  hy- 
gienic laws.  The  importance  of  these  lessons  impresses 
us  when  we  consider  that  a  vast  majority  of  the  gram- 
mar-school pupils  go  directly  into  life.  The  wise  teacher 
studies  to  give  them  the  best  things  to  prepare  them 
23 


338  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

to  live  hygienically.  These  lessons  supplement  the 
physical-culture  lessons,  and  are  re-enforced  by  the 
conduct  lessons. 

METHODS  IN  PHYSICS. 

The  physical  sciences  treat  of  energy  apart  from 
life,  and  include  physics,  chemistry,  astronomy,  and 
the  physical  portions  of  geography,  geology,  meteor- 
ology, and  mineralogy.  For  practical  purposes  the 
school  world  has  divided  these  sciences  into  two 
lines  of  work :  the  geography  line,  which  includes 
astronomy  and  the  physical  portions  of  geology, 
meteorology,  and  mineralogy ;  and  the  physics  line, 
which  includes  physics  and  chemistry.  The  lessons 
in  physics  blend  readily  with  all  other  science  lessons, 
and  hence  go  on  side  by  side  with  the  geography  and 
biology  lessons.  In  our  elementary  schools  some  les- 
sons in  chemistry  are  given  in  connection  with  the 
lessons  in  physics,  but  oral  physics  is  the  leading 
study. 

1.  Value.  "  There  should  be  in  the  elementary 
school  from  the  first  a  course  in  the  elements  of  sci- 
ence. Each  science  possesses  some  phases  that  lie 
very  near  the  child's  life.  There  should  be  a  spiral 
course  in  natural  science.  A  first  course  should  be 
given  in  botany,  zoology,  and  physics  so  as  to  treat 
of  the  structure  and  use  of  familiar  plants  and  ani- 
mals and  the  explanation  of  physical  phenomena  as 
seen  in  the  child's  playthings,  domestic  machinery, 
etc." —  Committee  of  Fifteen. 

"  No  other  subject  gives  such  breadth  of  develop- 
ment as  physics.  The  knowledge  which  a  pupil  gains 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE.  339 

by  observation  and  experiment  is  a  knowledge  which 
may  be  applied  in  untold  ways." — E.  R.  SHAW. 

2.  Helps.     The  elementary  work  is  strictly  oral. 
The  teacher  must  use  great  discretion  in  the  selection 
of  topics.     I  find  no  special  manuals  for  teachers,  but 
we  have  excellent  books  giving  the  subject-matter  and 
suggesting  methods.     The  following  are  taken  from 
a  list  of  many  good  works : 

Physics  by  Experiment,  by  E.  R.  Shaw.  Effingham,  Maynard 
&  Co.,  New  York. 

Gifford's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Physics:  Thompson,  Brown 
&  Co.,  Boston. 

Avery's  School  Physics :  Sheldon  &  Co.,  New  York. 

With  the  help  of  such  suggestive  works  the  teach- 
er may  plan  his  course  of  lessons  in  physics  and  do 
good  teaching.  The  courses  in  elementary  physics  in 
our  summer  normals  are  of  great  value. 

3.  Observation  and  Experiment.     The  lessons  are 
so  taught  that  pupils  learn  to  observe  and  test  things 
for  themselves.     The  easy  experiments,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, should  be  made  by  the  pupils.     In  the  primary 
course  pupils  gain  experience ;    theory  and  explana- 
tion will  usually  hurt  and  not  help.     In  the  interme- 
diate course  pupils  begin  to  understand  laws  and  ex- 
planations, but  the  work  is  limited  to  essentials.     "We 
prepare  our  pupils  to  go  out  into  life  interested  ob- 
servers and   discriminating   experimenters.     A  good 
foundation  is  laid  in  experience. 

4.  Apparatus.    Simple  and  inexpensive  apparatus 
is  the  best.     Grammar-school  pupils  will  readily  make 
most  of  the  apparatus  needed.     Still,  in  our  times 
necessary  apparatus  is  good  economy.     The  essential 


340  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

thing  is  the  use  of  the  apparatus  by  the  pupils.  By 
all  means  lead  each  pupil  to  perform  each  experiment. 
5.  Correlation.  Arithmetic,  concrete  geometry, 
drawing,  physics — these  studies  naturally  and  help- 
fully supplement  each  other.  Many  examples  in 
arithmetic  may  properly  be  taken  from  the  lessons 
in  physics.  The  things  learned  in  the  lessons  about 
light,  heat,  electricity,  sound,  etc.,  enter  into  nearly 
all  other  lessons. 

EESULTS  OF  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

The  most  astonishing  result  of  good  science  teach- 
ing is  the  increased  interest  in  the  other  studies.  The 
facts  and  methods  of  science  are  wonderfully  invig- 
orating and  inspiring.  "  Pupils,  when  science  is  prop- 
erly taught,  develop  remarkable  powers  of  observa- 
tion, for  they  learn  to  think  about  what  they  see ; 
they  apperceive  as  well  as  perceive.  They  learn  to 
think  facts  into  system,  so  that  each  fact  throws  light 
on  the  other  facts,  and  thus  all  facts  help  to  explain 
each."  The  inborn  love  of  birds  and  flowers  is  awak- 
ened, and  a  loving  interest  in  all  Nature  is  quickened 
so  that  pupils  come  to  find  in  Nature  studies  bound- 
less resources  for  enjoyment.  Just  now  the  educator 
studies  with  profound  interest  the  schools  in  which  sci- 
ence is  well  taught  in  comparison  with  other  schools. 
The  marked  betterment  in  the  moral,  intellectual,  and 
practical  lives  of  the  pupils  is  apparent.  The  study 
of  science  in  connection  with  the  other  study  groups 
does  much  to  make  life  worth  living. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  MATHEMATICS.      341 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

EFFICIENT    METHODS    OF    TEACHING    MATHEMATICS. 

SCHOOL  and  college  courses  place  mathematics  side 
by  side  with  literature  and  science.  "  The  study  of 
mathematics  has  an  educational  value  as  contributing 
knowledge,  discipline,  and  culture.  Since  mathe- 
matical science  is  the  instrument  of  measurement  or 
measurement  by  computation,  it  has  a  knowledge  value 
which  is  illustrated  in  all  the  vocations  of  life.  With- 
out it  science  and  civilization  would  be  impossible  and 
commerce  would  be  a  dream.  The  concepts  of  num- 
ber and  space,  the  simplest  of  all  abstract  notions,  are 
combined  by  the  simplest  logical  processes ;  hence 
mathematical  studies  afford  the  easiest  and  most  natu- 
ral introduction  to  the  severe  abstract  studies."  (J. 
M.  Taylor,  in  School  Review.)  In  no  other  studies 
do  pupils  so  readily  acquire  habits  of  systematic,  per- 
sistent, and  concentrated  application. 

Mathematics  Group  of  Studies. 


Elementary  schools. 

High  schools. 

Colleges. 

Arithmetic,  algebra 
begun. 
Concrete    geometry, 
oral  trigonometry. 

Algebra,  arithmetic. 

Demonstrative  geom- 
etry, trigonometry. 

Higher  algebra,  cal- 
culus. 
Intuitive     geometry, 
trigonometry,  etc. 

The  two  lines  of  study  are  continuous  and  are  in- 
terlaced at  every  step.  The  work  in  the  elementary 
school  is  largely  objective  and  practical,  but  in  the 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

high  school  it  is  demonstrative.  The  elementary 
studies  prepare  the  pupils  for  advanced  work  as  well 
as  for  practical  life. 

SPECIAL  PROGRAMMES  FOR  THE  MATHEMATICS  STUDIES. 

Each  teacher  prepares  a  specific  programme  for 
the  lessons  in  mathematics,  designating  the  time  to  be 
given  to  each  subject.  Nearly  all  educators  now 
agree  that  one  daily  recitation  period,  during  the  ele- 
mentary and  high-school  years,  should  be  devoted  to 
mathematics ;  but  all  do  not  agree  as  to  the  time  to 
be  given  to  each  line  of  work.  Conditions  modify 
to  some  extent  our  plans.  The  following  scheme, 
it  is  claimed,  has  much  to  commend  it :  Below  the 
seventh  grade,  four  weekly  recitation  periods  are  de- 
voted to  arithmetic  and  one  to  concrete  geometry.  In 
the  seventh  grade  two  periods  are  devoted  to  arithme- 
tic, two  to  beginning  algebra,  and  one  to  concrete  geom- 
etry. In  the  eighth  grade  three  periods  are  given  to 
introductory  algebra,  one  to  arithmetic,  and  one  to 
concrete  geometry.  In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
some  lessons  in  oral  trigonometry  are  given  in  con- 
nection with  concrete  geometry,  and  some  lessons  in 
bookkeeping  are  given  in  connection  with  arithmetic. 
During  the  first  year  in  the  high  school  three  periods 
are  devoted  to  algebra,  one  to  arithmetic,  and  one  to 
concrete  geometry.  During  the  second  high-school 
year  four  periods  are  devoted  to  geometry  and  one 
to  algebra.  During  the  third  high-school  year  two 
periods  are  given  to  geometry,  two  to  algebra,  and 
one  to  applied  mathematics.  During  the  fourth  high- 
school  year  three  periods  are  given  to  trigonometry 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  MATHEMATICS.      343 

and  two  to  applied  mathematics.  Each  teacher  will 
study  to  do  most  for  his  pupils  and  will  vary  the  pro- 
gramme to  suit  the  conditions.  The  gains  from  con- 
tinuous interlaced  work  are  very  great. 

Helps  in  teaching  Mathematics. —We  gather  into 
helpful  books  the  lessons  learned  from  the  masters. 
Each  teacher  may  now  work  in  the  light  of  human 
experience.  No  teacher  can  afford  to  disregard  these 
helps. 

Methods  in  Mathematics,  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten. 
American  Book  Company,  Cincinnati. 

History  and  Methods  of  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  Geometry,  by 
Superintendent  J.  M.  Greenwood.  Sheldon  &  Co.,  New  York. 

The  Teacher's  Outfit  in  Mathematics,  by  J.  M.  Taylor.  School 
Review,  Chicago. 

Methods  in  Mathematics  is  submitted  as  a  part  of 
this  chapter.  In  the  second  book  named,  Superintend- 
ent Greenwood  gives  us  a  most  interesting  history  of 
the  mathematics  studies  and  presents  practical  meth- 
ods of  teaching  these  branches.  From  many  sources 
teachers  will  gain  helpful  suggestions. 

Preparation  for  teaching  Mathematics. — Nearly  all 
teachers  must  to  some  extent  teach  mathematics. 
Special  preparation  conditions  good  teaching.  In  no 
other  studies  is  there  so  much  danger  from  presump- 
tion. Attention  is  directed  to  some  items  in  the 
work  of  preparation. 

1.  Appreciation.  In  no  other  group  of  studies 
does  so  much  depend  on  the  appreciation  of  the  sub- 
ject and  the  enthusiasm  of  the  teacher.  There  is  a 
joy  in  peaceful  mathematics.  "  God  geometrizes  con- 
tinually, and  to  study  geometry  is  to  think  the  thoughts 


344  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

of  God  after  him,"  was  the  conception  of  Plato. 
With  a  high  conception  of  the  grandeur  of  this  realm 
of  knowledge  and  with  a  high  ideal  of  the  art  of 
teaching  mathematics  one  can  inspire  and  lead  his 
pupils.  The  true  teacher  feels  a  delight  in  the  mathe- 
matics lessons  that  the  machine  teacher  never  dreams 
of.  Appreciation  is  vital. 

2.  Mastery.     The  elementary  teacher  must  know 
arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and   trigonometry  as 
sciences  in  order  to  teach  well  arithmetic  and  con- 
crete geometry.     He  must  also  take  a  lively  interest 
in  the  application  of  mathematics  in  science  and  in 
business  life.     A  mere  superficial  memory  knowledge 
is  utterly  inadequate.     Mastery  is  essential. 

3.  Psychology.     The  teacher  must  know  the  pupil 
as  well  as  mathematics.     Education  is  a  rational  pro- 
cess, and  lawful  effort  develops  power.     Teacher  sym- 
pathies encourage  the  pupils,  and  teacher  intelligence 
adapts  the  work  to  the  learner  and  guides  the  efforts 
of  the  pupils.     The  prepared  teacher  understands  his 
pupils  and   has   gained  insight  into  the  psychology 
of  mathematics  and  its  applications  in  teaching  this 
group  of  studies.     Insight  is  fundamental. 

4.  History.     The  story  of  the  evolution  of  mathe- 
matics attracts  the  teacher.     Its  growth  from  a  rude 
beginning  to  a  boundless  realm  of  knowledge  is  more 
wonderful  than  romance.    Incidents  from  this  history 
will   enthuse   pupils.      Teachers   gain   much   by   ap- 
proaching the  work    from    the    historic  standpoint. 
Historic  knowledge  helps. 

5.  Teaching.     Teaching  is  the  art  of  leading  pu- 
pils to  develop  power  through  mastery.     Methods  are 


METHODS  OP  TEACHING  MATHEMATICS.      345 

based  on  principles.  Each  lesson  is  a  new  creation. 
All  routine,  all  nostrum  devices,  all  mechanical  meth- 
ods, and  all  educational  quackery  are  utterly  detested. 
The  teacher  is  an  artist,  and  so  leads  the  pupil  to  mas- 
tery with  the  minimum  expenditure  of  time  and  ener- 
gy. However  gifted  and  however  learned,  no  one  un- 
skilled in  teaching  is  prepared  to  teach  mathematics. 
Skill  in  teaching  is  the  crowning  preparation. 

Methods  of  teaching  Arithmetic. — The  arithmetic 
teaching  of  the  old  schoolmaster  was  bad,  yet  pupils 
learned  to  compute.  The  waste  in  time  and  energy, 
it  is  true,  was  enormous,  and  the  ordinary  attainments 
were  meagre.  The  betterment  in  arithmetic  teaching 
during  the  last  half  of  the  century  has  been  note- 
worthy. Many  causes  have  combined  to  promote  this 
improvement.  The  multiplication  of  graded  and  nor- 
mal schools,  the  creation  of  teachers'  associations,  in- 
stitutes, and  summer  schools  of  pedagogy ;  the  publi- 
cation of  improved  text-books  and  manuals,  and  the 
circulation  of  progressive  school  journals  are  some  of 
the  influences  that  have  worked  this  result.  Arith- 
metic is  now  fairly  well  taught  in  our  schools.  Though 
the  teaching  is  not  quite  ideal,  it  is  believed  that  arith- 
metic is  now  better  taught  in  our  elementary  schools 
than  any  other  branch  of  study. 

THE  ARITHMETIC  WORK  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

For  six  years,  four  weekly  recitation  periods  are 
devoted  to  arithmetic.  During  the  seventh  and  eighth 
years  four  weekly  periods  are  given  to  arithmetic  and 
introductory  algebra.  The  so  -  called  mental  and 
written  arithmetic  are  united  in  each  recitation.  The 


346  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

former  practice  of  having  two  daily  recitations — one 
in  mental  and  one  in  written  arithmetic — has  been 
abandoned  by  most  teachers.  Our  modern  text-books 
omit  the  puzzles,  numerical  conundrums,  and  anti- 
quated topics  of  the  old  arithmetics.  Those  who  pro- 
test against  giving  so  much  time  to  arithmetic  will 
do  well  to  study  the  educative  and  practical  value  of 
this  branch.  Arithmetic  is  the  logic  of  the  elementary 
school  and  the  key  to  the  Nature  studies.  It  is  the 
best  means  for  developing  habits  of  concentration  and 
continuous  attention.  It  is  thought  that  the  time 
now  accorded  to  arithmetic  in  our  best  schools  is 
ample,  but  that  further  reduction  is  not  permissible. 

HELPS    IN    TEACHING    ARITHMETIC. 

Work  and  Methods  in  Arithmetic,  Reports  of  Committees  of 
Ten  and  Fifteen.  American  Book  Co.,  New  York. 

Psychology  of  Number  and  its  Applications  to  Methods  of 
teaching  Arithmetic,  by  McLellan  and  Dewey.  D.  Appleton  & 
Co.,  New  York. 

Manual  of  Methods  in  Arithmetic,  by  A.  H.  Garlick.  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.,  New  York. 

In  the  reports  named,  teachers  get  the  maturest 
plans  in  the  briefest  space.  The  second  book  named 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  art  of  teaching  all  subjects. 

The  authors  so  develop  the  psychology  of  number 
and  its  applications  to  methods  of  teaching  arithmetic 
that  a  similar  treatment  of  all  other  school  studies  is 
made  necessary.  The  result  will  be  the  discarding  of 
unsound  empirical  methods  and  the  substituting  of 
scientific  methods.  Nowhere  else  have  I  found 
arithmetic  so  well  taught  as  in  the  Kansas  City,  Mo., 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  MATHEMATICS.      347 

schools.  Superintendent  J.  M.  Greenwood,  in  the 
Eeport  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion for  1893-'94r,  has  given  a  large  number  of  verbatim 
reports  of  recitations  in  arithmetic,  in  different  grades 
and  different  schools.  I  commend  these  lessons  as 
highly  instructive  and  suggestive.  Such  admirable 
works  as  Dr.  E.  E.  White's  Manual  of  Methods  in 
Arithmetic  deserve  a  place  in  the  outfit  of  every 
elementary  teacher. 

PRIMARY  METHODS  IN  ARITHMETIC. 

Three   distinct   metli-  (  Method  of  symbols, 

ods  are  used  in  teaching  METHODS,  -j  Method  of  things. 

.,-,,.  (  Method  of  thought, 

primary  arithmetic. 

1.  Method  of  Symbols.    The  old  schoolmaster  used 
the  method  of  symbols.     The  natural  genesis  and  use 
of  number  was  not  thought  of,  and  so  the  symbols 
were  treated  as  entities.    This  method  was  mechanical 
and  artificial.     Tables  and  rules  were  committed  to 
memory  ;  operations  were  mechanical  applications  of 
rules.      The   number   of    routine   teachers   who   are 
slaves  to  the  method  of  symbols  is  still  far  too  large, 
but  the  method  has  practically  disappeared  from  our 
modern  schools. 

2.  Method  of  Things.     Transition  teachers  used 
the  method  of  things.     This  was   called  the  object 
method,  as  number  was  thought  of  as  a  property  of 
objects.    Number  was  made  meaningless.    Practically, 
this  method  was  an  immense  improvement,  but  it  made 
mental  activity  incidental,  and  so  failed  to  build  on 
the  rock.     Many  of  our  teachers  still  use  the  method 


348  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

of  things,  but  the  transition  to  better  teaching  is 
rapidly  going  on. 

3.  Method  of  Thought.  The  wise  teacher  uses 
the  rational  method.  Things  and  measurements  oc- 
casion insight  into  the  world  of  much  and  many.  A 
prepared  pupil,  in  dealing  with  objects,  gains  the 
number  idea  by  direct  insight.  The  actual  use  of 
certain  things  in  reaching  a  certain  end  occasions  the 
rise  of  the  number  idea.  The  pupil  experiences  things 
involving  number  and  gets  intuitively  the  number 
idea.  Number  is  a  mode  of  measuring  values,  and 
a  prepared  mind  dealing  with  objects  originates  the 
number  notions.  Things  occasion  number  ideas  and 
symbols  stand  for  these  ideas.  Every  step  in  arith- 
metic is  rational,  and  is  easily  taken  by  the  prepared 
pupil.  The  rational  method  leads  the  pupil  to  create 
his  arithmetic.  Myriads  of  absurd  notions  and  hurt- 
ful devices,  like  mist  before  the  rising  sun,  fade  away 
in  the  light  of  the  rational  method. 

First  and  Second  Years.  At  six,  pupils  have 
gained  the  number  idea,  and  may  now  profitably  ad- 
vance by  easy  steps.  The  number  lessons  are  the 
easiest  of  all  lessons.  The  work  is  strictly  oral,  and 
is  skilfully  adapted  to  the  pupils.  There  is  no  hurry. 
A  few  things  are  well  taught.  The  pupils  now  live 
in  the  world  of  things.  During  these  beginning 
years  the  lessons  are  about  the  child  world,  and  are 
all  natural  and  easy.  Correlation  of  studies  is  now 
complete,  for  the  number  work  seems  to  naturally 
enter  into  all  the  other  work.  Pupils  continually 
measure  and  weigh  and  group  and  count.  No  defi- 
nitions or  rules  or  logical  explanations  are  yet  thought 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  MATHEMATICS.      349 

of,  but  the  work  is  rational  and  leads  on  to  higher 
work.  Right  habits  are  now  formed,  and  a  solid 
foundation  is  laid. 

Third  and  Fourth  Tears.  An  easy  progressive 
primary  arithmetic,  in  which  the  oral  and  written 
work  are  combined,  now  supplements  the  work  of  the 
teacher.  The  correlation  of  the  studies  continues  to 
be  almost  complete.  The  examples  are  drawn  largely 
from  the  other  studies.  There  is  no  hurry  and  no 
crowding ;  all  lessons  are  easy  and  suitable.  Pupils 
readily  learn  fractions.  In  connection  with  decimals, 
the  metric  system  is  learned.  Definitions  and  rules 
and  formal  explanations  are  still  deferred ;  pupils, 
however,  learn  to  think,  learn  accuracy,  learn  to  work 
rapidly.  Measuring  and  weighing  is  daily  work,  and 
a  good  foundation  is  laid  for  advanced  work. 

METHODS  IN  ADVANCED  ARITHMETIC. 

We  think   of  pure  j  Pure  arithmetic, 

arithmetic    as   the   sci-  \  Applied  arithmetic, 

ence  of  numbers,  and  of  applied  arithmetic  as  its  ap- 
plications to  particular  calculations  concerning  lines, 
surfaces,  solids,  times,  forces,  money  values,  etc. 
This  distinction  will  simplify  the  work  and  econo- 
mize time  and  energy.  The  advanced  arithmetic  is 
begun  in  the  fifth  grade  and  is  studied  for  four  years. 
I.  Ideal  Text-book. — We  will  have  two  books  in 
our  ideal  series — a  primary  arithmetic  for  the  third 
and  fourth  grades,  and  an  advanced  arithmetic  for 
the  four  grammar-school  grades.  Some  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  advanced  arithmetic,  it  is  thought, 
will  be  as  follows  : 


350  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

1.  It  will  not  be  a  Large  Book.     It  will  include  es- 
sentials presented  in  good  form,  but  will  omit  rubbish. 
Extraneous    topics,   conundrums,    definitions,    rules, 
answers,  and  tedious  details  will  be  left  out.     It  will 
be  an  inviting  text-book,  and  will  be  supplemented  by 
the  teacher  and  the  pupils. 

2.  It  will  be  Modern.     It  will  be  up  to  date.     The 
examples  will  represent  the  living  present.     The  met- 
ric system  will  be  taught  as  an  application  of  deci- 
mals.     Our  antiquated  tables  will  be  consigned  to 
antiquarian  research,  and  the  lingering  relics  of  out- 
grown things  will  be  replaced  by  things  of  to-day. 

3.  It  will  combine  Oral  and  Written  Arithmetic. 
This  is  counted  an   educational  desideratum.     Suit- 
able alternate  examples  for  oral  and  written  work  will 
be  skilfully  united  from  the  first  to  the  last  page.     It 
will  displace  the  old  mental  and  written  arithmetics 
that  still  linger  in  some  of  our  schools. 

4.  The  Equation  will  be  used.     Even  in  the  sixth 
grade  equations  will  be  used  to  some  extent.     In  the 
seventh   and  eighth  grades  the  work   in   arithmetic 
and  introductory  algebra  will  go  on  together.     This 
feature  will  have  great  educational  significance.     The 
interlacing  of  related  studies  characterizes  the  new 
education. 

5.  Applied  Arithmetic  will  have  its  Place.     As 
applications  of  percentage,  we  will  have  interest,  com- 
mission,  discount,   etc.      Easy  bookkeeping,   metric 
geometry,  and  the  lessons  in  physics  will  be  some  of 
the  helpful  work  in  applied  arithmetic. 

6.  It  willy  above   all,  foster  Thinking.     Supple- 
mented by  good  teaching,  it  will  lead  pupils  to  make 


METHODS  OP  TEACHING  MATHEMATICS.      351 

their  own  definitions  and  rules.  It  will  develop  the 
spirit  of  sturdy  self-reliance  and  pluck.  It  will  en- 
courage research  by  starting  inquiries  and  leaving  pu- 
pils to  find  out.  We  now  have  a  considerable  number 
of  arithmetics  that  approximate  our  ideal.  Teacher, 
please  refrain  from  writing  another  arithmetic ;  what 
we  want  is  good  teaching. 

II.  Arithmetical  Correlations.     The  applications  of 
arithmetic  in  other  studies  largely  increases  the  inter- 
est and  greatly  enhances  the  value  of  this  study.     We 
carefully  guard  against  extremes,  but  the  natural  and 
helpful  applications  of  arithmetic  are  without  limit. 
Metric  geometry  affords  a  wide  field  for  helpful  ap- 
plications  of   arithmetic.     Business    gives   boundless 
opportunities  for  applied  arithmetic.     The  lessons  in 
physics   call   for  helpful   applications   of  arithmetic. 
The  gains  from  legitimate  correlations  are  so  marked 
that  it  is  surprising  to  find  so  many  teachers  still  ad- 
hering to  the  "  isolation  device  "  of  our  ancestors. 

III.  Objective  and  Practical  Work. — Pupils  in  our 
elementary  schools  seek  to  know  rather  than  to  prove. 
The  instruction  should  be  objective  and  practical,  but 
educative.    Intelligent  guidance  is  essential.    By  trial, 
by  measurement,  by  constructions,  the  pupil  should 
be  led  to  discover  for  himself  the  simple  truths  and 
operations  of  arithmetic.     Pupils  should  be  led  to  ap- 
ply  the   lessons   learned   in   manifold    ways.     Good 
teaching  helps  the  pupil  to  gain  insight  and  to  make 
his  own  definitions  and  rules.     Original  work  is  fos- 
tered.    Pupils  are  encouraged  to  do  effective  think- 
ing.    The  inferences  in  pure  arithmetic  are  easy,  but 
applied  arithmetic  demands  the  most  vigorous  thought 


352  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

of  the  pupil.  For  extended  treatment  of  methods  in 
arithmetic  we  must  again  refer  teachers  to  valuable 
manuals  prepared  by  able  educators. 

METHODS  IN  INTRODUCTORY  ALGEBRA  AND  CONCRETE 
GEOMETRY. 

We  are  learning  to  treat  the  mathematics  group 
of  studies  as  one  branch.  Our  pupils  come  to  think 
of  arithmetic  and  algebra  and  geometry  as  one  study. 

1.  Introductory  Algebra.     Algebra  uses  the  sym- 
bols of  arithmetic,  but  algebraic  statements  are  gen- 
eral while  arithmetical  statements  are  particular.     It 
is  well  to  get  elementary  pupils  to  think  of  algebra  as 
general  arithmetic.     The  use  of  letters  and  the  equa- 
tion will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  distinction.     To  a 
limited  extent  it  is  safe  to  begin  to  use  the  equation 
in  the  sixth  grade.     In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
arithmetic  and  algebra  are  studied  together.     The  ad- 
vantages  of   this   plan   are   apparent.     In   the   high 
school  algebra  is  pursued  as  a  demonstrative  science 
but  in  the  elementary  school  the  method  of  arithmetic 
is  used,  at  least  in  part.     In  the  eighth  year  the  tran- 
sition is  made.     We  carefully  avoid  the  danger  of 
pushing  algebra  too  far. 

2.  Concrete  Geometry.     These  lessons  are  of  great 
practical  value,  but  we  must  keep  in  view  that  they 
are    introductory    to    demonstrative    geometry.      As 
in  arithmetic,  the   work   is   objective   and  practical. 
"  The  whole  work  in  concrete  geometry  will  connect 
itself  on  the  one  side  with  the  work  of  arithmetic 
and  on  the  other  with  elementary  instruction  in  phys- 
ics.    With  the   study  of  arithmetic   is  therefore  to 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  THE  SCHOOL  ARTS.  353 

be  intimately  associated  the  study  of  algebraic  signs 
and  forms,  of  concrete  geometry  and  physics.  This 
is  a  striking  instance  of  the  interlacing  of  subjects 
which  seem  so  desirable."  (Committee  of  Ten.)  In 
concrete  geometry,  as  well  as  in  arithmetic,  pupils  are 
led  to  use  linear  equations  and  the  literal  notation. 
For  full  treatment,  teachers  are  referred  to  the  excel- 
lent manuals  for  teaching  concrete  geometry.  The 
aim  here  is  to  interest  all  teachers  in  the  forward 
movement  for  interlacing  the  studies  of  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  geometry  in  our  elementary  schools. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

EFFICIENT    METHODS    OF   TEACHING   THE    SCHOOL    ARTS. 

TEACHING  includes  all  art,  for  it  is  the  art  of  man- 
hood. The  teacher  is  an  artist,  and  she  fosters  the  art 
spirit  in  all  school  work.  She  leads  her  pupils  to 
create  as  well  as  to  appreciate. 

The  School  Arts. 


Elementary  schools. 

High  schools. 

Colleges. 

Physical  culture. 
Vocal  culture. 
Manu-rnental  culture. 

Physical  culture. 
Vocal  culture. 
Manu  -  mental    cul- 
ture. 

Physical  culture. 
Vocal  culture. 
Manu  -  mental     cul 
ture. 

The  three  lines  of  art  study  are  co-ordinate,  continu- 
ous, and  progressive.     Each  begins  in  the  nursery  and 
24 


354  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

goes  on  through  all  the  school  and  college  years.  For 
practical  reasons  the  language  arts  are  included  in  the 
language-literature  group  of  studies.  The  three  lines 
of  art  work  are  organically  one  branch  of  study ;  each 
contributes  to  make  the  most  of  the  body.  The  edu- 
cative value  of  the  art  studies  is  coming  to  be  recog- 
nised, and  these  studies  are  now  given  a  place  in  all 
modern  school  and  college  programmes. 

SPECIAL  ART  PROGRAMME  FOR  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

In  many  of  our  best  schools,  ungraded  and  graded, 
two  daily  recitation  periods  are  now  given  to  the  art 
work :  one  to  physical  and  vocal  culture  and  one  to 
manu-mental  culture.  The  lessons  in  physical  and 
vocal  culture  are  given  on  alternate  days  and  are 
supplemented  by  brief  daily  exercises.  The  hourly 
recesses  and  the  home  exercises  are  counted  as  a  part 
of  the  physical-culture  work.  The  manu-mental  cul- 
ture lessons  come  daily ;  besides,  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades,  on  alternate  Saturdays,  two  hours  are 
devoted  to  manual  training.  The  results  are  highly 
satisfactory ;  instead  of  retarding,  the  art  work  facili- 
tates progress  in  the  other  studies.  Educators  are 
coming  to  agree  that  while  nothing  is  lost,  the  gain 
from  the  art  studies  in  our  schools  is  immense. 

SPECIAL  PREPARATION  FOR  TEACHING  THE  SCHOOL 
ARTS. 

To  teach  the  school  arts  well  requires  as  thorough 
preparation  as  for  teaching  the  science  studies.  As  a 
basis,  the  teacher  must  understand  the  physical  and 
mental  economies  and  the  stages  and  laws  of  physical 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  THE  SCHOOL  ARTS.  355 

and  mental  growth.  Then  each  line  of  art  work  must 
be  in  some  degree  mastered.  Above  all,  leadership 
in  the  art  work  requires  an  absorbing  interest  in  the 
art  studies.  Special  training  in  teaching  each  line  of 
art  work  is  essential. 

In  art  teaching  as  in  Nature  teaching  we  have  at 
present  three  classes  of  teachers.  First,  we  have  the 
untrained  teachers,  who  do  the  best  they  can  ;  next  we 
have  the  partially  trained  teachers,  who  do  reasonably 
good  work ;  and  next  we  have  the  skilled  art  teachers, 
who  inspire  a  love  for  the  art  work  and  who  lead 
pupils  on  to  success.  In  another  decade,  teachers  will 
come  up  to  our  normal  schools  through  our  special- 
ized intermediate  and  high  schools,  and  skilled  art 
teachers  will  become  the  rule.  Our  summer  normals 
are  doing  a  great  work  in  improving  art  teaching  all 
along  the  line,  and  our  school  journals  are  admirably 
supplementing  all  the  other  instrumentalities  for  fos- 
tering preparation  for  art  teaching. 

ART  TEACHING  IN  SPECIALIZED  INTERMEDIATE 
SCHOOLS. 

The  school  arts  constitute  a  splendid  group  of 
studies  for  an  intermediate  specialist.  The  three 
lines  of  work  are  organically  one  branch  of  study. 
All  tend  to  so  develop  and  train  the  body  as  to 
make  it  the  fittest  instrument  for  the  mind  to  work  in 
and  through.  The  intermediate  specialist  profound- 
ly studies  the  physical  economy  and  the  school  arts, 
and  she  gives  her  best  energies  to  promoting  physical 
vigour,  vocal  culture,  and  manual  art.  She  is  able  to 
do  vastly  more  for  pupil  betterment  than  a  teacher 


356  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

who  has  to  teach  all  the  school  studies,  and  who  can 
give  but  a  fraction  of  her  energies  to  the  art  work. 
The  intermediate  art  specialist  has  each  pupil  one 
hour  daily  for  four  years.  The  benefits  of  four  years 
of  systematic  and  skilful  art  training  are  simply  in- 
calculable. The  earnest  teacher  who  instructs  in  all 
the  branches  can  do  much  to  interest  and  guide  her 
pupils  in  the  art  work,  but  the  specialist  can  do  vastly 
more  for  her  pupils.  (Eead  Chapter  XXIII.) 

PHYSICAL  CULTURE  DEMANDS. 

Physical  vigour  is  fundamental  in  education.  In 
order  to  achieve,  one  must  be  able  to  do  and  to  en- 
dure. Physical  culture  is  the  art  of  making  most  of 
our  bodies. 

Hygienic  Conditions. — Favourable  environments  are 
conditions  of  health  and  growth.  Let  us  turn  back 
and  reread  School  Hygiene,  Chapter  IY.  How  may 
we  help  to  secure  better  hygienic  conditions  ?  Home 
hygiene  is  as  necessary  as  school  hygiene.  Through 
our  pupils,  through  lectures,  and  through  the  press 
we  can  do  much  to  promote  better  home  hygiene. 
We  hold  ourselves  responsible  in  part  for  our  school 
environments.  The  best  exercise  will  not  help  much 
in  cheerless,  filthy,  poorly  heated,  and  poorly  lighted 
schoolrooms. 

Hygienic  Habits. — We  do  most  for  the  physical 
well-being  of  our  pupils  when  we  lead  them  to  form 
good  hygienic  habits  (see  page  49).  We  not  only  teach 
our  pupils  the  laws  of  health,  but  we  also  get  them  to 
live  these  laws.  The  conduct  lessons  and  the  science 
lessons  are  re-enforced  by  the  physical-culture  lessons. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  THE  SCHOOL  ARTS.  357 

Physical  training  best  expresses  the  art  work  in 
physical  culture.  The  little  ones  in  the  kindergarten 
and  the  primary  schools  are  literally  trained  into  hy- 
gienic habits,  but  intelligent  self-training  characterizes 
the  intermediate  and  high-school  physical  culture  work. 
The  best  hygienic  habits  formed  in  the  primary  and 
intermediate  become  fixed  in  the  "high  school  and  the 
college  ;  they  literally  become  life  habits. 

Physiology  of  Exercise. — We  study  the  nature  of 
exercise  and  we  gain  insight  into  the  philosophy  of 
education.  Fatigue,  rest,  growth — these  processes  con- 
stitute an  interesting  chapter  in  the  story  of  human 
development.  Physiology  of  Bodily  Exercise,  by  Fer- 
nand  Lagrange,  International  Scientific  Series,*  is  sub- 
mitted as  a  part  of  this  topic. 

1.  Fatigue.  Nerve  cells  are  exhausted  by  effort. 
Exertion  reduces  these  cells  nearly  one  half  in  quality 
and  quantity.  The  process  of  exhausting  nerve  cells 
is  called  fatigue,  and  we  use  this  term  to  represent  ex- 
ercise as  well  as  its  results.  Fatigue  reduces  the  bulk 
and  the  structure  of  nerve  cells.  When  normal  rest 
repairs  the  exhausted  nerve  cells  and  restores  physical 
vigour,  the  fatigue  is  normal ;  when  it  does  not  do  this, 
the  fatigue  is  abnormal,  Overexertion  or  underex- 
ertion  tends  to  produce  the  tired  feeling  called  morbid 
fatigue.  Not  to  heed  the  danger  signal  of  morbid 
fatigue  is  a  fatal  blunder.  The  workman  from  neces- 
sity and  the  sportsman  from  excessive  ardour  carry 
exertion  beyond  the  normal-fatigue  limit  and  so  pro- 
duce morbid  fatigue  and  disease  and  death. 

*  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 


358  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

2.  Rest.     Repose  restores  the  broken-down  nerve 
cells.     After  refreshing  sleep  we  awake  rested,  rein- 
vigorated.     Rest  stands  for  the  process  of  restoring 
broken-down  nerve  cells  as  well   as  for  the  result. 
Normal  rest  restores  vigour.     Insufficient  or  excessive 
rest  is  abnormal.     Normal  rest  balances  normal  fatigue. 
Normal  rest  strengthens,  but  abnormal  rest  weakens. 
Excessive  sleeping  or  waking  rest  tends  to  produce 
abnormal  fatigue  with  its  train  of  maladies. 

3.  Growth.    Effort  exhausts,  repose  restores,  growth 
results.     This  sentence  is  the  text  for  a  hundred  vol- 
umes.    Teacher,  ponder  it  well,  and  write  your  views 
in  an  essay  to  read  to  your  fellow-teachers.     Normal 
fatigue  and  normal  rest  condition  health  and  growth. 
We  lead  our  pupils  to  do  their  best  when  at  their  best ; 
we  thus  promote  healthy  and  vigorous  growth.     De- 
velopment through  fatigue  and  rest  greatly  interests 
us,  for  it  brings  us  very  near  the  heart  of  things. 
What  mighty  truths  seem  about  to  emerge ! 

4.  Drudgery.     Effort  continued  after  the  normal- 
fatigue  limit  has  been  reached  is  drudgery.     Drudg- 
ery hurts  and  does  not  help.     Work,  when  teacher 
and  pupils  are  fresh,  educates  ;  work  when  teacher 
and  pupils  are   fatigued   is   drudgery  and   tends  to 
dwarf.     The  wearing  drudgery  of  so  much  of  our 
school  work  is  appalling.     Through  stupid  methods 
of  studying,  of  teaching,  of  examining,  of  reporting, 
of  marking,  and  of  promoting,  our  teachers  and  our 
pupils  are  often  made  drudges.     Teachers  must  be 
quick  to  perceive  when  the  normal-fatigue  limit  has 
been  reached.     School  drudgery  must  go. 

Teacher,  the  study  of  fatigue  and  rest  may  save 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  THE  SCHOOL  ARTS.  359 

you  and  your  pupils  from  many  hurtful  devices. 
You  will  carefully  plan  to  have  restful  recitations 
follow  exhausting  studies,  and  you  will  arrange  to 
have  rest  follow  work.  You  will  prize  the  hourly 
recess  as  the  school  safety-valve.  You  will  study  to 
keep  your  pupils  and  yourself  fresh  and  happy. 

Objectionable  Exercises. — School  and  college  exer- 
cises in  physical  training  must  tend  to  promote  phys- 
ical vigour,  must  reach  the  body  of  learners,  and  must 
be  free  from  injurious  tendencies.  However  popular 
uneducative  games  may  be,  the  teacher  does  not  hesi- 
tate in  his  disapproval.  We  venture  to  call  attention 
to  some  classes  of  exercises  deemed  harmful. 

1.  Vicarious.     Physical  culture  is  a  personal  mat- 
ter.    It  means  bodily  exercise  for  the  purpose  of  per- 
fecting the  physical  organism  by  increasing  health, 
strength,  and  skill.     A  team,  or  a  crew,  or  a  club  may 
represent,  but  can  not  help  the  student  body.     Vica- 
rious athletics  can  not  be  classed  as  school  exercises. 
Modern  football,  the  regatta,  and  all  similar  games 
are  strictly  vicarious  athletics.     The  lovers  of  sport 
think  of  these  games  as  they  do  of  the  turf  and  the 
ring,  but  they  do  not  consider  them,  in  any  true  sense, 
school  games.     They  may  deepen  the  interest  felt  in 
physical  culture  and  manly  sports,  but  can  do  nothing 
more.     They  do  not  help  the  student  body. 

2.  Brutalizing.     The  heavy  competitive  athletics 
of  the  Spartans,  the  gladiatorial  contests  of  the  Romans, 
and  the  bull  fights  of  the  Spaniards,  tended  to  brutal- 
ize the  participants   and   the   spectators.      However 
great  their  claims  for  physical  culture  and  the  devel- 
opment of  manly  courage,  the  brutalizing  tendencies 


360  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

of  the  ring  and  the  gridiron  seem  to  be  irredeemable. 
On  this  ground,  sooner  or  later,  we  must  reject  as 
school  games  all  brutalizing  contests. 

3.  Excessive.     Games  that  exhaust  are  objection- 
able.    A  severe  game  of  football  makes  efficient  study 
impossible  for  hours,  and  even  days.     Suitable  school 
exercises  tend  to  develop  and  refine  the  whole  person, 
but  do  not  exhaust.     When  the  tendency  of  an  exer- 
cise is  to  abnormal  fatigue  it  should  be  modified  or 
rejected.     Exercises  must  tend  to  better  fit  the  stu- 
dent for  efficient  study.     Games,  such  as  chess,  check- 
ers, cards,  and  dominoes,  that  give  too  little  exercise, 
must  be  rejected  as  games  for  students.     They  waste 
precious  time  and  more  precious  energy  and  give  no 
invigorating  returns. 

4.  Military.     Military  tactics  are  unobjectionable 
as  to  the  above  counts,  and  in  many  respects,  are  de- 
sirable as  school  exercises.     However,  it  is  believed 
that   educators   will   ultimately   reject    dancing,  and 
military  tactics  and  boxing  as  school  exercises  for  two 
reasons  :  (1)  They  are  not  the  best  available  exercises 
for  promoting  physical  vigour,  grace,  and  skill ;  (2) 
their  tendencies  are  not  so  wholesome  and  desirable  as 
graded  gymnastic  exercises.     For   sufficient  reasons 
boxing  and  dancing  have  been,  as  a  rule,  rejected  as 
school  exercises.     I  do  not  doubt  that  military  tactics 
will  share  the  fate  of  dancing  and  boxing  when  tested 
in  the  light  of  experience  and  the  spirit  of  our  civili- 
zation.    Civic  culture  in  our  times  is  vastly  more  im- 
portant than  military  culture.     We  must  work  to  de- 
velop the  grandest  manhood.     Our  pupils  are  entitled 
to  the  best.     But  we  must  not  antagonize  helpful 


METHODS  OF  TEACHINO^TIJp  SefiOOL  A^TS.  361 

movements  by  our  factious  opposition ;  we  are  bound, 
however,  to  do  what  we  can  to  replace  hurtful  exer- 
cises by  helpful  exercises.  Our  pupils  are  entitled  to 
the  best  things. 

EFFICIENT  METHODS  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING. 

Physical  vigour  is  our  ideal.  The  Spartans  devel- 
oped physical  prowess,  the  Athenians  physical  beauty, 
and  the  Romans  iron  endurance.  Our  civilization 
demands  the  high  thinking  of  the  Athenians  and 
the  iron  endurance  of  the  Romans  rather  than  the 
physical  prowess  of  the  Spartans.^ -In  the  arts  of 
peace  and  war,  brains  and  implements  are  now  su- 
preme. The  age  of  brute  force  is  past.  The  manly 
men  and  the  womenly  women  now  are  the  brave 
thinkers  and  the  noble  doers.  Jesus  is  our  ideal  of 
a  manly  man.  Physical  training  is  the  art  of  devel- 
oping a  vigorous  physical  manhood.  Exercise  is  the 
means.  Well-directed  physical  effort  makes  for  growth 
and  vigour.  The  body  is  so  developed  and  trained  as 
to  be  the  fittest  instrument  for  a  self  to  work  in  and 
through. 

1.  Adapted  Exercises.  The  physical  exercises 
should  be  as  wisely  adapted  to  the  physical  condition 
of  the  pupil  as  the  mental  exercises  to  his  mental  con- 
dition. The  light  exercises  and  the  invigorating 
plays  of  the  kindergarten  and  the  primary  school  are 
adapted  to  the  little  ones.  The  more  vigorous  and 
varied  exercises  of  our  grammar  schools  are  adapted 
to  the  girls  and  boys.  The  invigorating  exercises  of 
the  high  schools  are  adapted  to  the  youths.  The 
helpful  athletics  of  our  colleges  are  adapted  to  young 


362   SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

women  and  young  men.  The  graded  system  of  exer- 
cises worked  out  by  Carl  Betz,  director  of  physical  cul- 
ture in  the  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  schools,  is  admirable 
in  theory  and  practice.  It  is  based  on  the  principles 
of  the  German  system,  but  is  completely  adapted  to 
the  wants  of  our  schools.  The  Emerson  system  of 
physical  culture  skilfully  adapts  the  exercises  to  the 
growing  pupils.  Other  excellent  systems  now  in  use 
give  satisfactory  results.  But  most  depends  on  the 
teacher.  Only  the  wise  teacher  can  adapt  the  exer- 
cises to  classes  of  pupils  and  to  individual  pupils. 

2.  Outdoor  School  Exercises.     The  hourly  recess 
in  elementary  and  high  schools  is  a  physical-culture 
imperative.     No  other  device  can  do  so  much  to  keep 
pupils  fresh  and  happy.     Real  recreation  must  follow 
work.     Rest  must  balance  fatigue  and  drudgery  must 
be  made  to  disappear   from   the  schoolroom.      The 
benefits  from  systematic  exercise  are  manifold,  but 
the  free  exercises  of  the  playground  and  the  home 
must  supplement  the  systematic  exercises  of  the  school- 
room.    Outdoor  exercises  are  most  helpful,  and  when 
conditions  justify,  it  is  every  way  best  to  have  some 
of  the  systematic  exercises  in  the  open  air.     We  plan 
to  have  the  free  exercises  of  the  recess  follow  these 
outdoor  systematic  exercises. 

3.  Spontaneity.     It  must  be  so  managed  that  pu- 
pils will  engage  with  zest  in  the  exercises.     The  play 
spirit  must  in  some  way  be  infused  into  the  system- 
atic exercises.     Glad    efforts    develop    power.     The 
kindergarten  exercises  are  ideal.     The  same  is  true  of 
the  exercises  in  many  of  our  primary  schools.     Only 
in  our  grammar  and  high  schools  do  the  exercises 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  THE  SCHOOL  ARTS.  363 

tend  to  become  mechanical  and  irksome,  and  hence 
comparatively  unprofitable.  It  is  believed  that 
adapted  and  varied  exercises,  skilfully  managed,  may 
be  made  a  delight  to  advanced  pupils  and  college 
students ;  self-training  is  educative. 

4.  Habitual  Home  Exercises.  Here  we  get  the 
best.  As  we  do  most  for  our  pupils  intellectually  by 
fostering  studious  habits  and  broad  interest,  so  we  do 
most  to  promote  their  physical  well-being  by  lead- 
ing them  to  form  permanent  hygienic  habits.  Ex- 
ercise is  not  a  fetish  ;  self -effort  promotes  growth  and 
vigour,  but  exercises  must  be  fitting.  Unfitting  exer- 
cises, like  wrong  medicines,  work  injury.  We  inter- 
est each  intermediate-  and  high-school  pupil  in  his 
personal  problem.  Each  asks,  "  How  can  I  make 
most  of  myself?"  To  begin,  each  one  must  make 
most  of  his  body  through  exercise.  Pupils  thus  in- 
terested enter  with  zest  into  the  school  exercises. 
"What  is  far  more  important,  they  develop  habits  of 
systematic  home  exercise.  Each,  after  long  trial  and 
much  consultation,  decides  on  a  life  plan  for  taking 
regular  exercise. 

(1)  Home  Gymnastics.  Pledge  :  "  I  will  devote 
fifteen  minutes  daily  to  systematic  exercises."  Some 
exercise  that  calls  into  play  the  entire  body  is  selected. 
Prof.  R.  L.  Brown  at  eighty -three  was  an  efficient 
college  professor.  "  Since  boyhood,"  he  tells  us,  "  I 
have  taken  exercise  with  Indian  clubs  fifteen  minutes 
daily.  To  this  exercise  and  my  daily  walks  I  attribute 
my  ability  to  work  on."  In  life,  as  in  school,  sys- 
tematic exercise  makes  the  difference  between  success 
and  failure. 


364:  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

(2)  Walking.     Pledge :  "  I   will   walk   one  mile 
daily."     What  have  been  the  exercises  of  great  men? 
Kant  got  his  gymnastics  in  his  daily  lectures,  and  for 
fourscore  years  kept  up  his  vigour  by  long  daily  walks. 
The  constitutional  walks  of  Bismarck  and  other  great 
men  are  proverbial.     Walking  is  one  of  the  very  best 
of  all  exercises  and  should  be  practised  as  a  fine  art. 
It  is  a  great  thing  to  get  this  pledge  into  the  lives  of 
our  pupils. 

(3)  Cycling.     Pledge :   "  I  will   cycle   two   miles 
daily."     The  bicycle   seems   to   have   come  to   stay. 
Cycling  is  claimed  by  Miss  Frances  Willard  and  an 
innumerable   host   of   experts   as   an   ideal   exercise. 
Bicycles  are  becoming   so  cheap  that  nearly  every 
pupil  over  ten  years  of  age  will  be  able  to  own  or 
secure  the  use  of  a  bicycle.      Cycling  supplements 
walking. 

(4)  Working.     Pledge  :  "  I  will  work  thirty  min- 
utes daily."      Home  duties   supplement  but  do  not 
take  the  place  of  systematic  exercises.     Every  child 
should  be  trained  to  work.    In  the  golden  age  of  Athens 
each  Athenian  youth  was  required  to  learn  a  trade. 
Rural  industries  have  large  educative   values.     The 
habit  of  doing  regularly  real  work  is  highly  impor- 
tant.    Work  promotes  growth  and  vigour  when  the 
laws  of  fatigue  and  rest  are  observed.     The  teacher  by 
example  and  by  precept  should  dignify  work.     Chop- 
ping was  the  favourite  work  of  Greeley  and  Glad- 
stone.    Paul  made  tents.     We  may  so  manage  as  to 
lead  most  of  our  grammar-  and  high-school  pupils  to 
embody  the  four  pledges  in  habits  which  they  will 
keep  up  through   college   and  through  life.      In  so 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  THE  SCHOOL  ARTS.  3G5 

doing  we  shall  certainly  enable  them  almost  to  double 
their  vigour  and  their  worth. 

(5)  Rowing,  etc.  Many  excellent  exercises,  like 
rowing  and  horseback  riding,  may  be  considered. 
Some  may  profitably  substitute  rowing  for  cycling ; 
horseback  riding  may  be  chosen  by  some  instead  of 
cycling ;  or  these  exercises  may  be  taken  on  alternate 
days.  Such  games  as  croquet  and  tennis  should  be 
encouraged. 

Interest  in  Physical  Culture. — Pupil  study,  phys- 
iological psychology,  and  a  truer  philosophy  of 
education  have  awakened  a  lively  interest  in  the  phys- 
ical improvement  of  the  race.  That  physical  better- 
ment conditions  mental  and  moral  betterment  is  now 
accepted  as  an  educational  axiom.  The  educational 
press  leads  in  many  helpful  suggestions  and  supple- 
ments the  many  valuable  manuals  on  physical  culture. 
The  earnest  teacher  will  study  to  become  an  artist  in 
promoting  physical  as  well  as  mental  and  moral  cul- 
ture. 

EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  YOCAL  Music. 

The  educative  value  of  vocal  music  is  very  great. 
The  culture  of  the  ennobling  emotions  is  as  important 
as  the  culture  of  reason.  Man  is  a  social  being  and 
music  and  conversation  are  pre-eminently  the  social 
arts.  Yocal  culture  makes  us  companionable.  Song 
and  story  are  the  sunshine  of  the  home  and  the 
school.  Yocal  culture  does  much  to  make  life  worth 
living. 

1.  Course  in  Music.  The  little  kindergartners 
sing  just  as  the  birds  sing.  They  are  happy  and  ex- 


366  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

press  their  joy  in  song  and  play.  The  children  dur- 
ing the  first  and  second  primary  years  express  their 
joys  in  song  and  play  and  story  as  in  the  kindergar- 
ten ;  but  when  the  pupils  are  ready  for  it,  they  are 
led  to  read  easy  music  just  as  they  are  led  to  read 
easy  print.  Theory  and  definitions  are  not  thought 
of.  During  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh, 
and  eighth  years,  the  graded  lessons  in  music  are  mas- 
tered side  by  side  with  the  graded  lessons  in  mathe- 
matics and  science.  Throughout  the  four  high-school 
years  and  the  four  college  years  the  students  have  two 
lessons  each  week  in  vocal  culture — one  in  music  and 
one  in  expression. 

2.  Teacher  Preparation.  No  other  musical  in- 
strument equals  the  human  voice.  Yocal  culture  is 
the  most  desirable  of  all  accomplishments  and  one  of 
the  most  essential  preparations  for  teaching.  The 
preparation  for  teaching  vocal  music  should  be  as 
thorough  as  the  preparation  for  teaching  Latin.  The 
culture  is  its  own  reward.  Each  primary  teacher 
must  be  a  lover  of  song  and  story  and  play  as  well  as 
a  lover  of  children.  Teachers  in  ungraded  schools 
should  be  able  to  teach  music  as  skilfully  as  they 
teach  arithmetic.  In  another  decade  teachers  of  vocal 
music  in  our  intermediate  schools  as  now  in  our  high 
schools  will  be  specialists,  but  vocal  culture  will  be 
sought  by  all  teachers. 

Class  Methods.  Here  as  everywhere  the  earnest 
teacher  learns  from  the  masters.  Teaching  vocal 
music  to  classes  is  an  advanced  art.  Each  individual 
pupil  must  be  instructed  and  trained  and  each  must 
be  enlisted  in  the  study  of  music.  Concert  work 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  THE  SCHOOL  ARTS.  367 

even  in  music  has  its  limits.  Each  pupil  needs  spe- 
cial attention.  Yocal  music  must  be  taught  as  thor- 
oughly as  mathematics.  The  excellent  manuals  for 
teachers  of  vocal  music  are  certainly  of  great  value, 
but  the  teacher  needs  to  get  inspiration  and  methods 
from  living  artists. 

EFFICIENT  METHODS  IN  TEACHING  DRAWING  AND 
WRITING. 

Mann-mental  culture  develops  intellect  and  emo- 
tion and  will  through  hand  training.  It  includes  as 
school  arts  drawing,  writing,  and  making.  Form 
study  and  drawing  complement  each  other.  All  art 
involves  drawing.  Drawing  is  a  universal  language, 
and  its  applications  are  manifold.  The  modern 
teacher  is  skilful  in  blackboard  drawing.  Agassiz,  as 
he  lectured,  seemed  to  make  the  germ  grow  from  the 
egg  to  the  fully  developed  bird.  Whatever  the  sub- 
ject, drawing  re-enforces  good  teaching.  Inability  to 
draw  cripples  the  most  gifted  of  teachers.  "  Oh,  that 
some  wise  teacher  had  taught  me  to  draw  ! "  is  the  sad 
refrain  of  many  a  learned  professor. 

1.  Educative  Value.  Drawing  is  the  key  to  the 
world  of  manual  art.  It  brings  into  the  lives  of  our 
pupils  something  of  painting,  sculpture,  architecture, 
landscaping.  Literature,  music,  drawing — these  are 
studies  that  develop  taste  and  imagination.  The  draw- 
ing lessons  awaken  interest,  and  when  well  conducted 
educate  aesthetic  feeling,  develop  intellect,  and  culti- 
vate will.  Drawing  aids  pupils  in  all  other  studies. 
The  practical  value  of  drawing  is  incalculable.  It  is 


368  SCHOOL  MANAGEiMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

not  surprising,  therefore,  that  drawing  has  worked  its 
way  to  a  permanent  place  in  all  modern  schools. 

2.  Preparation  for  teaching  Drawing.     The  com- 
ing teacher  will  be  cultured  and  skilled  in  drawing.    It 
is  not  meant  that  teachers  will  even  attempt  high  art, 
but  they  must  be  prepared  to  lead  their  pupils  to  ap- 
preciate art  creations  ;  they  must  be  prepared  to  con- 
duct the  drawing  lesson  as  intelligently  as  they  con- 
duct  the  geography  lesson  ;  they  must  be  prepared  to 
draw  rapidly  and  reasonably  well  on  the  blackboard. 
All   teachers  in  our  primary  and  ungraded  schools 
must  be  prepared  to  teach  drawing.     Drawing  in  the 
near  future  will  be  taught  by  specialists  in  our  inter- 
mediate schools  as  in  our  high  schools  and  normal 
schools. 

3.  Drawing  Manuals.     However  skilled  teachers 
may  be,  they  will  need  to  consult  constantly  the  best 
manuals.      These  manuals  embody  the  best  thought 
and  experience  of  experts,  and  are  rich  in  helpful 
suggestions.    Prang's  Form  Study  and  Drawing  Man- 
uals are  considered  excellent.    The  Prang  Educational 
Company,  of  Boston,  have  done  much  to  promote 
art  education.     Teachers  will  get   suggestions  from 
manuals  and  from  living  teachers,  and  will  then  cre- 
ate their  own  ideals  and  pursue  their  own  plans. 

4:.  Course  in  Drawing.  Drawing  is  begun  in  the 
kindergarten  and  is  continued  in  some  form  through 
the  school  and  college  years.  Two  drawing  lessons  a 
week  in  elementary  schools  and  one  lesson  a  week  in 
high  schools  and  colleges  will  suffice  for  the  many. 
These  lessons  are  supplemented  by  the  applied  draw- 
ing in  nearly  all  subjects.  Excluding  drawing  from 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  THE  SCHOOL  ARTS.  369 

higlyschool  and  college  courses  is  considered  a  funda- 
mental educational  mistake.  The  suitable  weekly  les- 
son keeps  students  in  touch  with  the  art  world. 

5.  Writing.  The  tendency  is  to  the  use  of  the 
vertical  system  of  writing  and  to  greatly  shorten  the 
time  usually  devoted  to  teaching  writing.  During  the 
primary  years  it  is  found  satisfactory  to  have  the 
writing  and  the  drawing  lessons  on  alternate  days. 
Later  the  necessary  training  in  writing  is  given  in 
connection  with  drawing. 

Fine  penmanship  is  not  a  school  art ;  speed  and 
legibility  are  the  aims.  Children  learn  to  write  as 
they  learn  to  read,  and  writing  and  reading  go  on 
together.  Teachers  should  look  well  to  positions  and 
movements,  and  manage  to  get  pupils  to  write  plainly 
and  rapidly. 

The  vertical  writing  in  some  modified  form  will, 
it  is  believed,  be  the  writing  of  the  future.  Teachers 
will  learn  to  so  teach  writing  as  to  economize  energy 
and  make  this  art  of  greatest  value  in  all  school  work 
and  in  life.  Suggestive  manuals  will  aid  in  the  work. 

EFFICIENT  METHODS  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING. 

"  Making "  best  expresses  the  manual-training 
idea.  Form  study,  drawing,  and  manual  training  are 
supplementary.  To  some  extent  manual  training,  the 
newest  of  all  our  school  studies,  is  beginning  to  be 
continuous  through  the  school  and  college  years.  How 
to  make  manual  training  in  its  most  helpful  forms 
general  is  one  of  the  educational  problems  of  our  times. 
The  little  kindergartners  mould  and  weave  and  cut 
and  paste.  Our  best  primary  schools  continue  the 
25 


370  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

manual-training  work  of  the  kindergarten  and  adapt 
it  to  the  grades.  As  we  transform  our  graded  gram- 
mar schools  into  specialized  intermediate  schools  we 
will  make  the  solution  easy  for  this  class  of  schools. 
Art  specialists  will  command  the  necessary  facilities 
and  appliances  for  efficient  work  in  the  art  studies. 
In  some  of  our  high  schools  the  manual  training 
is  becoming  excellent.  Some  of  our  normal  schools 
include  in  their  art  work  excellent  courses  in  manual 
training.  Our  ungraded  schools  and  our  unspecialized 
grammar  schools  are  still,  as  a  rule,  without  manual 
training.  Satisfactory  plans  for  efficient  manual  train- 
ing in  these  schools  have  not  yet  been  devised.  Some 
teachers,  however,  are  succeeding,  and  that  all  may 
succeed  is  no  longer  doubted ;  but  we  must  not  at- 
tempt too  much  nor  expect  too  much.  "We  must 
study  the  conditions  and  gradually  introduce  the  lines 
of  manual  training  most  fitting. 


EFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

SUGGESTIVE   STUDY   HINTS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION. 

Good  Teaching  in  lieu  of  Extraneous  Incentives. — Read  again 
pp.  177-195.  Why  do  you  contend  that  vital  teaching  is  the 
very  essence  of  helpful  school  work?  Discuss  the  questions: 
"  Should  written  recitations  take  the  place  of  formal  written  ex- 
aminations f"  "Should  good  teaching  banish  per-cent  mark- 
ing ?  "  "  Should  educative  records  and  reports  displace  per-cent 
drudgery?"  "Should  good  teaching  lead  to  promotion  and 
graduation?"  "Why  should  oral  and  book  teaching  be  made 
complementary?"  Does  the  investigation  method  of  studying 
and  teaching  include  all  methods  ? 

XXVI.  Efficient  Methods  in  Conduct  Teaching,— Discuss,  "Is 
conduct  the  greatest  thing  in  education  f "  What  are  the  char- 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  THE  SCHOOL  ARTS.  371 

acteristics  of  the  conduct  group  of  studies!  Follow  the  five  lines 
of  conduct  work  through  the  schools  and  the  college.  Discuss,  "  Is 
the  conduct  group  of  studies  of  the  highest  educative  value?" 
Give  your  method  of  teaching  the  special  conduct  lessons.  Why 
is  educative  school  government  considered  the  best  conduct  work  ? 
Discuss  primary  methods  in  history ;  intermediate  methods ;  high- 
school  methods ;  college  methods.  How  will  you  teach  civics  in 
primary  classes  ?  in  intermediate  classes  f  in  high-school  classes  ? 
Discuss,  "  How  should  mind  lessons  be  taught  in  primary  classes  ? 
in  intermediate  classes'?  in  high-school  classes?"  How  may  prac- 
tical religion  be  efficiently  taught  in  all  our  schools  ?  Why  must 
ethical  culture  be  ingrained  ?  What  lessons  do  we  learn  from  the 
Jews  ?  from  the  Scotch  ?  from  the  Quakers  ?  from  moral  heroes  f 
Discuss,  "Is  duty  the  keynote  to  ethical  culture?"  Mention  the 
three  books  you  consider  most  helpful  in  conduct  culture.  Give 
some  benefits  of  a  good  working  library  in  conduct  teaching. 

XXVII.  Efficient  Methods  in  Language-Literature  Teaching.— 
Show  that  the  four  lines  of  language-literature  work  are  organ- 
ically one.  Trace  these  lines  through  the  schools  and  the  college. 
Discuss,  "  Is  it  best  to  give  this  group  of  studies  double  the  recita- 
tion time  of  the  other  study  groups  1 "  Describe  your  ideal  spe- 
cial programme  for  language-literature  work  in  the  primary ;  in 
the  intermediate ;  in  the  high  school.  Give  some  of  the  advan- 
tages of  specialization  in  teaching  this  group  of  studies  in  inter- 
mediate schools.  Discuss  the  importance  of  the  working  library 
in  teaching  English.  Point  out  some  of  the  correlations  of  litera- 
ture and  other  studies.  Discuss,  "  Should  reading  be  made  a  spe- 
cial study  ?  "  Give  your  method  in  teaching  primary  reading.  De- 
scribe the  first  step ;  second  step ;  third  step.  Describe  the  A-B-C 
method;  phonetic  method;  word  method;  sentence  method; 
look-and-say  method;  rational  method.  Why  should  lessons  in 
expression  be  continuous?  Point  out  the  educative  value  of  lit- 
erature. Why  should  language  and  literature  be  interlaced? 
State  the  evils  of  divorcing  these  studies.  Point  out  the  blunder 
in  teaching  the  history  of  literature  rather  than  literature ;  in  fol- 
lowing the  old  classical  ideal.  Give  your  plan  for  teaching  litera- 
ture in  the  primary ;  in  the  intermediate ;  in  the  high  school. 
What  do  the  language  lessons  include?  Give  your  method  in 
primary  language  lessons.  How  should  composition  be  taught  in 
the  primary  ?  in  the  intermediate  ?  in  the  high  school ! 


372  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 

XXVIII.  Efficient  Methods  in  Science  Teaching.— Discuss,  "  We 
should  teach  science  rather  than  sciences."     Are    the    science 
studies  organically  one  branch  ?    Follow  the  three  lines  of  Nature 
study  through  the  schools  and  the  college.    Describe  your  special 
spiral  programme  for  Nature  work ;  describe  Prof.  Jack  man's ;  de- 
scribe Prof.  Howe's.    What  is  meant  by  making  geography  central 
in  the  elementary  science  group  ?    Mention  three  helpful  manuals 
for  geography  teaching.    Give  your  method  in  primary  geog- 
raphy ;  in  intermediate  geography.    What  is  your  estimate  of  the 
educative  value  of  biology  ?    Relate  the  history  of  biology  in  our 
schools.     Why  should  the  preparation  for  teaching  biology  be 
thorough  I    Give  some  of  the  correlations  of  biology  and  other 
studies.    Outline  your  method  of  teaching  biology  in  the  primary ; 
in  the  intermediate :  in  the  high  school.    How  should  we  teach 
physiology  and  hygiene  in  elementary  schools  $    State  educative 
value  of  physics.     Give  reasons  for  teaching  physics  side  by  side 
with  the  other  lines  of  Nature  study.    Give  your  plan  for  teach- 
ing physics  in  the  primary ;  in  the  intermediate ;  in  the  high 
school.    Show  that  good  science  teaching  enables  pupils  to  accom- 
plish more  in  their  other  studies.    Visit  and  contrast  schools  in 
which  science  is  and  is  not  well  taught. 

XXIX.  Efficient  Methods  in  Mathematics. — Compare  the  culture 
value  of  mathematics  and  language;   the  knowledge  value  of 
mathematics  and  Nature  studies.    Trace  through  the  schools  and 
the  college  the  two  lines  of  mathematical  work.    Give  some  rea- 
sons why  these  lines  of  study  should  be  continuous ;  should  be  in- 
terlaced.   Compare  the  special  programme  of  the  author  and  your 
ideal  programme  for  the  mathematics  studies.    Why  does  the  wise 
teacher  welcome  excellent  manuals  of  methods?    Are  working 
libraries  important  in  mathematics  work?     Discuss  each  of  the 
five  lines  of  preparation  for  teaching  mathematics.     Tell  the 
story  of  methods  of  teaching  arithmetic.     Give  an  outline  of  the 
arithmetic  work  in  elementary  schools.    Discuss  "  Psychology  of 
Number."    Prove  that  psychology  determines  methods.    Examine 
method  of  symbols ;  method  of  things ;  method  of  thought.    De- 
scribe methods  in  arithmetic  during  the  first  and  second  years ; 
during  the  third  and  fourth  years;  during  the  fifth  and  sixth 
years ;  during  the  seventh  and  eighth  years.     Discuss  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  ideal  text-book  in  arithmetic.    Show  the  correla- 
tions of  arithmetic.    Give  your  reasons  for  placing  introductory 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  THE  SCHOOL  ARTS.  373 

algebra  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  Discuss  the  question, 
"Should  concrete  geometry  be  taught  in  elementary  schools'?" 
Show  the  correlations  of  concrete  geometry  and  other  studies. 

XXX.  Efficient  Methods  in  the  Art  Studies.— Describe  the  three 
lines  of  art  study  in  our  schools  and  colleges.  Show  that  the 
school  arts  are  organically  one  branch  of  study.  State  the  advan- 
tages of  specialized  intermediate  and  high  schools  in  teaching  the 
school  arts.  Discuss  the  preparation  of  the  teacher  for  teaching 
the  art  group  of  studies.  How  much  time  should  be  given  to  the 
art  studies  in  elementary  schools  ?  in  high  schools  ?  in  colleges  ? 
State  some  of  the  hygienic  conditions  of  physical  culture.  Why 
are  hygienic  habits  so  important?  What  do  you  mean  by  fa- 
tigue I  by  rest  f  by  growth  I  by  normal  and  abnormal  fatigue  I  by 
drudgery?  Why  are  vicarious,  brutalizing,  and  excessive  school 
exercises  objectionable  ?  Compare  the  ideals  of  various  peoples  as 
to  physical  culture.  Give  reasons  for  adapted  exercises;  for  free 
exercises ;  for  spontaneity.  What  systematic  home  exercises  can 
you  recommend?  Discuss  the  four  pledges.  Discuss  habitual 
work  as  exercise.  How  do  you  account  for  the  marvellous  inter- 
est now  manifested  in  physical  culture?  Give  six  reasons  why 
vocal  music  should  be  taught  in  our  schools  and  colleges.  What 
can  you  say  about  the  culture  value  of  music?  about  preparation 
for  teaching  music  ?  about  class  methods  in  teaching  music?  Dis- 
cuss the  culture  value  of  drawing ;  the  practical  value  ;  the  value 
to  the  teacher.  Prove  that  manual  training  should  have  a  place 
in  all  our  schools.  Review  Manual  of  Manu-mental  Culture,  by 
R.  K.  Priz,  American  Book  Company. 

Manuals  of  Method. — The  following  are  some  of  the  helpful 
general  manuals : 

De  Garmo's  Essentials  of  Method.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co,  Boston. 

McMurry's  General  Method.  Public  School  Publishing  Com- 
pany, Bloomington,  111. 

Brook's  Normal  Methods.    Sower  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

Parker's  Concentration.    E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Johonnot's  Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching.  D.  Appleton 
&  Co.,  New  York. 

Greenwood's  Principles  of  Education  practically  Applied. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Garlick's  Manual  of  Method.     Longmans  &  Co.,  New  York. 


SYLLABUS  OF  BALDWIN'S  SCHOOL 
MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


Pages  3  to  54. 

I.    PUPIL   BETTERMENT   THROUGH   BETTER   EDUCATIONAL 
CONDITIONS. 

1.  Discuss  "  Does  progress  come  of  ideals  in  advance 

of  reals  ? " 

2.  Show  that  pupil  betterment  is  the  central  idea  in 

school  management  and  school  methods. 

3.  Describe  your  ideal  school;  your  ideal  teacher; 

your  ideal  pupil ;  your  ideal  school  board. 

4.  Discuss  "Is  pupil  study  the  most  important  thing 

in  the  new  education  ?  " 

5.  Explain  how  pupil  study  helps  teachers  ;  how  it 

works  pupil  good. 

6.  Give  the  author's  plan  for  pupil  study;  the  plan 

of  Prof.  Earl  Barnes;  of  President  Hall;  your 
plan. 

7.  What  is  the  infant  ?  the  child  ?  the  boy  ?  the  youth  ? 

the  young  man  ? 
8    Point  out  the  gains  from  studying  the  pupil  as  a 

physical  being;  as  a  self;  as  a  moral  agent. 
9.  As  an  educator,  what  does  the  teacher  do  for  the 

pupil?     Illustrate. 

10.  Discuss  "  Is  teaching  a  learned  profession  ? "   "  May 

teaching  be  made  a  learned  profession  ? " 

11.  Why  must  the  ideal  teacher  be  gifted?  cultured? 

prepared  ?  devoted  ?  progressive  ? 
375 


3/6         SYLLABUS  OF  BALDWIN'S 

12.  Discuss  "Should  schools  for  educating  teachers  be 
sustained  ? " 

13  What  is  meant  by  school  hygiene?  by  home  hy- 
giene ?  by  personal  hygiene  ? 

14.  Discuss  "  Is  the  hourly  recess  a  hygienic  desidera- 

tum ?     Is  it  an  educational  imperative  ?  " 

15.  Show  that  free  exercise  as  well  as  systematic  exer- 

cise is  indispensable. 

16.  Explain  the  sanitary  value  of  pure  air;  of  normal 

temperature;  of  proper  light;  of  play. 

17.  Describe  the  civilized  toilet;  the  sanitary  cloak- 

room; the  hygienic  lunch. 

1 8.  Show  the  value  of  regularity;  of  cleanliness;  of 

abundant  sleep ;  of  hygienic  diet ;  of  suitable 
clothing ;  of  cheerfulness ;  of  self-control ;  of 
physical  vigor. 

Pages  55  to  90. 

II.    PUPIL   BETTERMENT  THROUGH    BETTER   EDUCATIONAL 
FACILITIES. 

1.  What  do  you  mean  by  educative  environments? 

by  school  management  ? 

2.  Describe  your  ideal  school  location;  school  grounds; 

schoolhouse. 

3.  Tell  the  story  of  the  evolution  of  the  schoolhouse; 

describe  what  you  have  seen. 

4.  How  can  we  make  the  best  school  work  possible? 

how  secure  physical  comfort? 

5.  Describe    the    teacher's    ideal   schoolroom  outfit; 

describe  desirable  schoolroom  decorations. 

6.  Give  the  meaning  of  school  apparatus;  the  value 

of;  the  use  of;  the  care  of. 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT.  377 

7.  Describe   your   ideal   educative   school   grounds; 

schoolroom ;  blackboard. 

8.  What  apparatus  is  needed  in  conduct  teaching  ?  in 

language-literature  teaching  ?   in  science  teach- 
ing? in  mathematics  teaching  ?  in  art  teaching? 

9.  Give  your  views  about  making,  buying,  and  taking 

care  of  apparatus. 

10.  Discuss  "Are  books  the  best  helps  in  teaching  and 

in  learning? " 

11.  Review  the  six  characteristics  of  the  ideal  text- 

book.    Describe  your  ideal  text-book. 

12.  Discuss  "Should  text-books  be  free  in  our  public 

schools?" 

13.  Outline  the  history  of  school  libraries;  give  your 

estimate  of  their  value. 

14.  Discuss  "  Should  every  schoolroom  have  a  work- 

ing library  ?" 

15.  Describe  the  working  library  of  a  rural  school; 

of  a  primary  school ;  of  an  intermediate  school ; 
of  a  high  school. 

16.  How  would  you  manage  department  libraries  in 

rural  schools  ?   in  primary  schools  ?   in  interme- 
diate schools  ? 

17.  In  what  way  may  general  libraries  be  made  most 

beneficial  ? 

18.  Discuss  "  Should  school  faculties  manage  the  work- 

ing libraries  ? " 

Pages  91  to  146. 

III.    PUPIL   BETTERMENT  THROUGH   EDUCATIVE    SCHOOL 
GOVERNMENT. 

i.  What  is  meant  by  teacher-governing  power?   by 
the  teacher  as  the  vital  factor  in  the  school  ? 


378         SYLLABUS  OF  BALDWIN'S 

2.  Discuss  "  Is  moral  worth  primary  in  school  govern- 

ment ? " 

3.  In  governing  power  show  the  value  of  character; 

of  culture;  of  pupil  insight;  of  teaching  power; 
of  heart  power ;  of  will  power ;  of  system ;  of 
tact ;  of  bearing. 

4.  What  do  you  mean   by  government?   by  school 

government?  by  motives?  by  incentives? 

5.  Discuss  "  May  the  teacher  determine  pupil  motives  ? " 

"  Is  the  teacher  responsible  for  pupil  conduct  ?  " 

6.  What  is  meant  by  hurtful  incentives?  by  low  in- 

centives? by  high  motives?     Illustrate. 

7.  Explain   the   three  classes  of  high  motives;    the 

three  classes  of  highest  motives. 

8.  Discuss  "Is  an  ideal  school   an   embryo   state?" 

"  Are  wise  laws  fundamental  ? " 

9.  State   the    educational    principles   that   determine 

school  regulations;  illustrate  each. 

10.  Expound  the  educative  school  code ;  illustrate  its 

enactment;  explain  its  educative  value. 

11.  What  do  you  mean  by  order?  by  law-abiding?  by 

self-government  ?    Why  is  self-government  best  ? 

12.  How  will  you  develop  the  habit  of  working  quiet- 

ly ?  of  regularity  ?  of  promptitude  ? 

13.  How  will  you  educate  your  pupils  to  act  properly  ? 

to  do  right  ? 

14.  Discuss  "  Does  educative  suffering   tend  to  work 

reformation  ?  "  "  Is  educative  punishment  reme- 
dial ? " 

15.  Examine  the  principles  relating  to  school  punish- 

ments; illustrate  each. 

1 6.  What  are  helpful   school  punishments?      Discuss 

disapproval;  reproof;  privations;  suspension. 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT.  379 

17.  What  are  hurtful  punishments?     Discuss  corporal 

punishment;  fear;  cruel  punishments;  unjust 
punishments;  low  marks. 

1 8.  Discuss  "May  rational  control  be   safely  substi- 

tuted for  the  rod  in  our  schools?" 

Pages  147  to  197. 

IV.    PUPIL   BETTERMENT  THROUGH   EDUCATIVE   CLASS 
MANAGEMENT. 

1.  Tell  the  story  of  school  evolution ;  of  individual- 

ism ;  of  classification. 

2.  Describe  the  class  ;  its  object;  its  adaptation  ;  size 

of  classes;  value  of  the  class. 

3.  Explain  the  art  of  happy  class  control.     Discuss 

"Is  attention  through  interest  fundamental?" 

4.  Give  your  plan  for  classifying ;  for  promoting. 

5.  What  do  you  mean  by  class  work?  by  the  reci- 

tation ;  by  good  class  work  ?  by  poor  class 
work  ? 

6.  Review  the  six  characteristics  of  educative  class 

work.     Name  some  other  characteristics. 

7.  Explain  class  methods ;  the  unity  method ;  the  in- 

vestigation method  ;  the  teaching  question  meth- 
od ;  the  conversation  method;  the  discussion 
method;  the  lecture  method. 

8.  Describe  class  devices ;  the  class ;  written  work ; 

laboratory  work  ;  outline  work  ;  reporting;  teach- 
ing; original  devices. 

9.  What  do  you  mean  by  school  tactics  ?  state  the 

object;  the  value. 

10.  Give  some  determining  principles.      How  does  a 
signal-clock  help  ? 


380  SYLLABUS   OF   BALDWIN'S 

11.  Illustrate  fitness  in  calling  and  dismissing  school; 

in  calling  and  dismissing  classes;  in  recitation 
tactics ;  in  blackboard  tactics  ;  in  concert  tactics. 

12.  Contrast  the  old  education  and  the  new  as  to  oral 

and  book  work. 

13.  Compare  oral   and  book  teaching  in  the  kinder- 

garten ;  in  the  primary ;  in  the  intermediate ;  in 
the  high  school ;  in  the  college. 

14.  Describe  the  oral  teaching  and  the  book  teaching 

in  our  best  schools. 

15.  Discuss  "  Should  the  written  recitation  be  substi- 

tuted for  the  formal  examination  ?  " 

1 6.  Give  seven  reasons  why  good  teaching  should  take 

the  place  of  all  forms  of  comparative  marking. 

17.  Describe   educative   records   and    reports.      Why 

should  per-cent  records  and  reports  disappear 
from  our  schools  ? 

18.  Discuss  "  Should  good  teaching  by  fostering  effi- 

cient study  determine  promotion  and  gradua- 
tion ?" 

19.  Why  should  teachers  so  manage  that  the  old  edu- 

cation will  imperceptibly  grow  into  the  new,  just 
as  the  serpent  sheds  its  old  skin  in  growing  the 
new  ? 

Pages  198  to  298. 

V.    PUPIL   BETTERMENT    THROUGH    BETTER     SCHOOL   AND    COLLEGE 
ORGANIZATION   AND    CORRELATION. 

1.  Look  over  the  educational  highway.     What  is  the 

central  idea  in  its  construction  ?  Why  is  each 
line  of  study  progressive  and  continuous  ? 

2.  What  does  each  class  of  schools  stand  for  ?    What 

studies  should  constitute  the  school  courses? 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMEMT.  381 

3.  Discuss  the  five  necessary  co-ordinate  groups  of 

studies;  the  five  practical  groups. 

4.  Give  the  history  of  the  Report  of  the  Committee 

of  Fifteen ;  of  the  Committee  of  Ten. 

5.  Describe  the  programme  for  elementary  schools  in 

the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen. 

6.  Tell  the  story  of  the  rural  schools.     Is  it  true  that 

most  of  our  leaders  come  from  these  schools  ? 

7.  Discuss  "  May  the  rural  schools  be  made  as  efficient 

as  the  city  schools  ?" 

8.  Explain  why  country  schools  must  be  sui  generis  ; 

why  are  ungraded  schools  least  economical  ? 

9.  Picture   your    ideal    rural    school   site ;    grounds ; 

schoolhouse ;  cloakroom ;  civilized  toilet. 

10.  Why  must  our  rural  schools  be  arranged  in  or- 

ganic groups  ?     Is  the  township  system  best  ? 

11.  Discuss  the  rural  district;  school  board;  district 

principal ;  district  faculty  ;  district  library. 

12.  Explain  the  rural-school  course  of  study  ;  the  four- 

group  programme;  the  three-group  programme. 

13.  Discuss  "  Should  the  central  rural  school  gradually 

evolve  into  the  district  high  school  ? " 

14.  How  must  the  method  of  work  in  rural  schools 

differ  from  that  in  the  graded  schools  ? 

15.  Describe  the  place  and  work  of  the  kindergarten; 

the  ideal  kindergarten;  the  ideal  kindergartner. 

16.  Give  your  views  of  the  ideal  primary-school  house ; 

ideal  faculty  ;  ideal  library. 

17.  Examine  primary  organization;  course  of  study; 

programme ;  methods.     Why  must  the  first  pri- 
mary grade  be  made  a  semi-kindergarten  ? 

18.  Explain  educational  periods;    the  work  of   each 

school  group ;  the  stages  of  school  evolution. 


382  SYLLABUS   OF   BALDWIN'S 

19.  Discuss   "Will   the  spirit  of  progress  compel  the 

transformation  of  our  graded  grammar  schools 
into  specialized  intermediate  schools?" 

20.  Describe  the  special  school-building  system;  de- 

scribe your  ideal  school  building  for  the  special- 
ized intermediate  school  of  the  future. 

21.  Examine  the  intermediate  study  groups;  the  in- 

termediate course  of  study ;  the  specialized  in- 
termediate programme. 

22.  Describe   the   specialized    intermediate   school   at 

work. 

23.  When  should  specialization  begin  ?     Give  the  view 

of  leading  educators. 

24.  Discuss  "  Will  the  benefits  of  intermediate  speciali- 

zation far  outweigh  its  objections  ?  " 

25.  Give  the  history  of  the  high  school;  its  place;  its 

functions;  its  characteristics. 

26.  Discuss    high-school    study    groups;    high-school 

courses ;  high-school  programmes. 

27.  Describe  the    high-school    faculty;    organization; 

promotion ;  graduation. 

28.  Discuss  college  correlation  ;  adaptation  ;  methods; 

early  specialization. 

Pages  299  to  373. 

VI.    PUPIL    IMPROVEMENT   THROUGH    EFFICIENT   METHODS   OF 
TEACHING. 

1.  Discuss  "  Should  the  conduct  group  of  studies  take 

highest  rank?"      "Should  conduct  teaching  be 
systematic  ? " 

2.  Trace  through  the  schools  and  the  college  the  five 

lines  of  conduct  work.     Give  your  special  pro- 
gramme for  the  conduct  studies. 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT.  383 

3.  Give  your  method  in  school  conduct;  in  how  to 

study  ;  in  manners ;  in  morals. 

4.  Explain  your  method  in  primary  history ;  in  inter- 

mediate history  ;  in  high-school  history ;  in  civ- 
ics; in  mind-lessons;  in  practical  religion. 

5.  Why  do  you  consider  history  and  biography  sup- 

plemented by  literature  the  great  conduct  stud- 
ies? 

6.  Discuss  "  Is  duty  the  keynote  in  the  practical  cul- 

ture of  the  moral  virtues  ?  " 

7.  Trace  the  four  lines  of  language-literature  work ; 

show  their  organic  unity. 

8.  Investigate  the  special  programme  for  language- 

literature  studies.  Discuss  "  Is  too  much  time 
given  to  language-literature  studies?" 

9.  Give  your  method  in  primary  reading;  in  primary 

literature;  in  primary  language  lessons;  in  pri- 
mary composition  ;  in  intermediate  teaching  of 
these  studies  in  high  school. 

10.  Why  do  we  call  the  science  group  of  studies  Nature 

studies  ?  Give  your  estimate  of  their  educative 
value. 

11.  Trace  through  the  schools  and  the   college   the 

three  lines  of  Nature  study;  show  the  organic 
unity  of  the  science  studies. 

12.  Discuss  special  programmes  for  science  work.     Is 

one  daily  recitation  period  sufficient  ? 

13.  Give  your  method  in  primary  geography;  in  inter- 

mediate geography ;  in  correlating  geography 
and  history. 

14.  Tell  the  story  of  the  growth  of  the  study  of  biol- 

ogy. Why  must  teachers  make  special  prepara- 
tion for  teaching  biology  ? 


384  SYLLABUS  OF  BALDWIN'S 

15.  Give  your  method  in  primary  biology;  in  inter- 

mediate biology ;  in  correlation  of  biology  and 
other  studies. 

16.  Review  Nature    Studies,  by  Prof.  Jackman ;  Sys- 

tematic Science  Teaching,  by  Prof.  Howe. 

17.  Why  should  the  study  of  physics  be  continuous? 

Estimate  its  educative  value. 

18.  Give  your  method  in  primary  physics;  in  interme- 

diate physics ;  in  high-school  physics. 

19.  Show  the  natural  and  helpful  correlations  of  phys- 

ics and  other  studies. 

20.  Discuss  "  Does  good  science  teaching  lessen  inter- 

est and  efficiency  in  the  other  study  groups  ? " 

21.  Trace  through  the  schools  and  the  college  the  two 

lines  of  mathematics  work.     Tell   the  educative 
value  of  these  studies. 

22.  Criticise  the  special  programme  for  mathematics 

studies.     Is  the  time  adequate  ? 

23.  Give  the  five  items   of  preparation  for  teaching 

mathematics;    point  out   the  danger    from  pre- 
sumption. 

24.  What  distinction  do  you  make  between  pure  and 

applied  arithmetic  ?     Give  six  characteristics  of 
the  ideal  text-book  in  arithmetic. 

25.  In   primary   arithmetic   illustrate   the   method  of 

symbols;  the  method  of  things;  the  method  of 
thought. 

26.  Give  your  method  in  primary  arithmetic;  in  ad- 

vanced arithmetic. 

27.  How  should  we  teach  introductory  algebra  in  sev- 

enth and  eighth  grades  ? 

28.  Give  your  methods  in   concrete  geometry ;  point 

out  its  correlations. 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT.  385 

29.  Trace   through   the  schools  and  the  college  the 

three  lines  of  art  study  ;  show  their  organic  unity. 

30.  Study  the  special  programme  for  art  work.     What 

changes  would  you  make  ? 

31.  What  special  preparations  are  necessary  for  teach- 

ing the  school  arts  ? 

32.  What  is  our  ideal  in  physical  culture?    Why  do 

you  object  to  exercises  that  are  vicarious,  brutal- 
izing, violent,  inferior  ? 

33.  Show  that  school   exercises   should   be  adapted ; 

systematic;  interesting;  educative. 

34.  Explain  the  four  pledges  for  home  exercises.    Why 

should  exercise  be  habitual  ? 

35.  Estimate  the  educational  value  of  music.     Explain 

your  method  in   primary  music;  in  intermediate 
music. 

36.  Give  your  method  in  primary  drawing;  in  inter- 

mediate drawing ;  in  primary  writing.      Do  you 
prefer  vertical  writing  ? 

37.  Estimate  the  value  of  drawing  to  the  teacher;  to 

the  pupil ;  in  life. 

38.  Discuss  "  Should   manual   training   be   continuous 

through  the  schools  ?  " 

39.  Describe  manual  training  in  the  kindergarten ;  in 

the  primary;    in  the  intermediate;   in  the  high 
school. 

40.  What  is  your  plan  for  getting  manual  training  into 

all  our  schools? 


INDEX. 


Abnormal  fatigue,  41,  357,  358,  360. 

Adapted  school  exercises,  42,  361, 
363. 

Adopting  regulations,  116. 

^Esthetic  culture,  59,  68,  360. 

Aids  in  geography,  72,  334. 

Alertness,  ix,  160. 

Algebra,  200,  268,  280,  352. 

Alphabetical  method,  325. 

Apparatus,  Chap.  VII ;  importance 
of,  69 ;  school  grounds,  70 ;  school- 
room, 70  ;  blackboard,  71 ;  in  con- 
duct, 71 ;  in  language-literature, 
72 ;  in  science,  339 ;  in  mathe- 
matics, 73, 351 ;  in  art,  74, 361, 367, 
369  ;  laboratory,  169,  339. 

Appliances,  betterment  of,  Chap. 
VI;  hygienic,  64;  movements, 
64 ;  electric  programme  clock,  65  ; 
physical  comfort,  65  ;  schoolroom 
outfit,  65  ;  school  apparatus,  69  ; 
library,  81. 

Architecture,  educative,  61,  69 ; 
union  school  system,  258 ;  special 
system,  259  ;  hygienic,  vii,  ix. 

Arithmetical  correlations,  851. 

Arithmetic,  methods  in,  345. 

Art  of  teaching,  xi,  xv,  10,  26,  36, 
163,  819,  858,  368. 

Art  programme,  854. 

Art  studies,  good  facilities,  74 ; 
courses  in,  352 ;  useful  and  beau- 


tiful, 210;  special  teacher,  268; 

art  methods,  Chap.  XXX  ;  course 

in,  353. 
Artistic  teaching,  xi,  36,  154,  164, 

172, 181,  368. 
Attention,  154, 160, 185. 

Bacon,  6. 

Barnes,  Earl,  methods  of  studying 
children,  24. 

Benefits  of  specialization,  259,  270, 
277. 

Betz,  Carl,  Graded  Gymnastics,  362. 

Biography,  207,  208,  306. 

Biology  methods,  335. 

Blackboard,  construction,  70 ;  use, 
71 ;  tactics,  175. 

Books,  best  help,  75 ;  educate,  81 ; 
educative,  Chap.  VIII ;  new  edu- 
cation, 177 ;  manuals,  306, 334,  343. 

Brooks,  Edward,  Normal  Methods, 
373. 

Brutalizing  exercises,  359. 

Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  pupil 
study,  14. 

Calisthenics,  vii,  40,  42,  868. 
Career  of  teaching  inviting,  29. 
Carlyle,  81. 

Central  idea,  xi,  4, 12,  202. 
Central  school,  228,  239. 
Chair  of  pedagogy,  84,  298. 


887 


388  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


Cheerfulness,  51,  97. 

Child  study,  value,  14 ;  childhood, 
16  ;  child  friend,  17. 

Circles  for  pupil  study,  child,  17  ; 
boy  and  girl,  20 ;  youth,  20. 

Civics,  ix,  310. 

Class  advantages,  ix,  152. 

Class  management,  class,  151 ;  con- 
trol, 154 ;  classification,  157  :  class 
work,  159  ;  efficient, ix;  methods, 
162 ;  class  devices,  168  ;  class  tac- 
tics, 172. 

Class  methods,  Chap.  XVI ;  recita- 
tion, 158 ;  criticism,  ix. 

Class  work,  hygienic  conditions, 
153;  control,  154;  characteristics, 
159;  methods,  ix,  162;  devices, 
168. 

Classification,  evolution,  150 ;  the 
class,  151 ;  criteria,  157  ;  advan- 
tages of,  153 ;  of  ungraded  schools, 
227  ;  four-group  plan,  227  ;  three- 
group  plan,  234. 

Classifying,  rural  schools,  153,  and 
Chap.  XXXI :  primary  schools, 
156,  and  Chap.  XXII ;  interme- 
diate schools,  156,  and  Chap. 
XXIII  ;  high  school,  156,  and 
Chap.  XXIV. 

Cleanliness,  schoolroom,  46 ;  closets, 
47  ;  personal,  50. 

Code,  school,  114, 117,  Chap.  XIII. 

Coeducation,  290. 

College  methods,  287,  309. 

Colleges,  courses  of  study,  200,  217 ; 
options,  219  ;  small  colleges,  292  ; 
connection  with  high  school,  288 ; 
trained  professors,  289  ;  faculty  a 
teaching  unit,  290. 

Composition,  320,  329. 

Concentration,  xv,  257,  333. 

Concrete  geometry,  78,  352. 

Conduct  culture,  Chap.  XXVI ;  con- 
duct studies,  301 ;  school  conduct, 


303 ;  history  and  conduct,  306 ; 
civics,  310 ;  mind  lessons  and 
conduct,  311 ;  religion  and  con- 
duct, 314  ;  greatest,  xiv,  208. 

Conduct  programme,  302. 

Conduct  specialists,  208,  260,  301. 

Conduct  studies,  helpful  appliances, 
71 ;  courses  in,  200 ;  greatest  tiling, 
208  ;  rural  schools,  229  ;  conduct 
methods,  Chap.  XXVI. 

Conscience,  127. 

Conversation  method,  165. 

Co-ordinate  study  groups,  neces- 
sary, 205 ;  practical,  207  ;  in  school 
and  college,  200. 

Co-ordination  and  correlation  of 
educational  institutions,  Dr.  Ma- 
gill,  294 ;  educational  highway, 
200,  253. 

Corporal  punishment,  viii,  xii,  133, 
140, 144. 

Correlation  of  schools  and  courses, 
xiv,  Chap.  XX ;  Report  of  Fifteen, 
211,  213 ;  of  studies,  200,  213 ;  of 
intermediate  work,  269 ;  of  con- 
duct studies,  306 ;  of  literature, 
321,  329 ;  of  arithmetic,  351 ;  geog- 
raphy, 333  ;  of  biology,  337  ;  of 
physics,  340 ;  of  mathematics,  341 ; 
of  art,  351. 

Courses  of  study,  general,  200 ;  ele- 
mentary schools,  212  ;  high 
school,  215,  288 ;  college,  217,  288 ; 
rural  schools,  230. 

Criticism,  ix. 

Culture,  conduct,  Chap.  XXVI ; 
physical,  Chap.  XXX;  ethical, 
315  ;  eesthetical,  365,  367. 

Cycling,  364. 

De  Garmo,  C.,  Essentials  of  Method, 

373. 

Departments  of  education,  83. 
Desks,  single  and  adjustable,  48. 


INDEX. 


389 


Devices,  the  class,  168 ;  laboratory 
work,  169  ;  outline  work,  170  ;  re- 
porting work,  170  ;  original,  171 ; 
hurtful,  359. 

Dewey,  John,  Psychology  of  Num- 
ber, 346. 

Diagrams,  the  school,  2 ;  educative 
conditions,  37  ;  educative  facili- 
ties, 56  ;  school  government,  92  ; 
educative  incentives,  107 ;  govern- 
ing power,  95 ;  educative  class 
management,  148  ;  oral  and  book 
work,  178  ;  correlation  of  schools 
and  courses,  200 ;  methods  of 
teaching,  300. 

Discussion  method,  166. 

District  school  board,  222. 

Divine  commission,  93. 

Drawing,  182,  367. 

Drill,  162. 

Drudgery,  358. 

Duty,  127, 130,  318. 

Early  specialization,  293. 

Education,  definition  of,  201. 

Educational  highway,  202,  253. 

Educational  periods,  253. 

Educational  press,  xv,  355,  365. 

Educative  class  work,  153. 

Educative  motives,  103,  107. 

Educative  school  government,  viii, 
xiii,  93, 103,  112, 119,  232. 

Efficient  methods,  conduct  teach- 
ing, 301  ;  language-literature 
teaching,  319 ;  science  teaching, 
330  ;  mathematics  teaching,  341 ; 
art  teaching,  353. 

Elementary  schools,  place,  211  ; 
course  of  study,  212,  230. 

Embryo  republic,  the  school,  112. 

Enforcement  of  regulations,  119, 121, 
122,124,126,  128. 

Environments,  57,  58,  63. 

Ethical  culture,  315 ;  historic,  316  ; 


ethical  environments,  58,  317 ; 
ethical  habits,  318 ;  ethical  con- 
science, 127, 130,  318. 

Evolution  of  school,  149  ;  of  class, 
150 ;  of  intermediate  school,  254  ; 
of  high  school,  277. 

Examinations,  hurtful,  185 ;  peri- 
odic, 186  ;  wasteful,  186 ;  unedu- 
cative,  187 ;  replaced  by  written 
recitation,  188. 

Excessive  exercises,  360. 

Exercise,  40,  356,  361,  363. 

Faculty,  rural  school,  237 ;  primary, 
245  ;  intermediate,  260  ;  high- 
school,  286 ;  college,  289. 

Faculty  work,  238,  246,  266,  269, 287. 

Fatigue,  357. 

Four-group  programme,  227,  234. 

Free  exercises,  362. 

Frye,  F.  A.,  Methods  and  Aids  in 
Geography,  334. 

Garlick,  A.  H.,  Manual  of  Methods, 
310. 

General  libraries,  88. 

Geography,  apparatus,  72 ;  methods, 
333  ;  how  to  teach,  334. 

Geometry,  73,  352. 

Germany,  oral  teaching,  79. 

Good  teaching,  best  incentive, 
Chap.  XIX ;  written  examina- 
tions, 185 ;  per-cent  marking,  189 : 
educative  records,  191 ;  promotion, 
194;  high  incentives,  189;  all- 
sufficient,  190  ;  ultimate,  191  ; 
comparative  marking,  191. 

Governing  power,  elements  of,  93 ; 
character,  94 ;  culture,  95 ;  pupil 
insight,  96 ;  teaching  power,  96 ; 
heart  power,  97  ;  will  power,  98  ; 
system,  99;  tact,  101 ;  hearing,  102. 

Government,  educative,  vii,  viii,  xiii, 
9, 103,  112, 119, 129. 


390  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


Grading,  255,  264. 

Graduation,  194. 

Greenwood,  J.  M.,  history  of  mathe- 
matics, 343 ;  arithmetic,  347 ;  prac- 
tical methods,  362. 

Grounds,  school,  sanitary,  58 ;  aes- 
thetic, 59 ;  educative,  70. 

Grouping  rural  schools,  227,  234. 

Groups  of  schools,  unique,  254. 

Groups  of  studies,  map  of,  200,  280 ; 
conduct  group,  300  ;  language-lit- 
erature group,  320 ;  science  group, 
331 ;  mathematics  group,  341 ;  art 
group,  353. 

Growth,  7,  9, 10,  36,  57,  93,  358. 

Gymnastics,  systematic,  vii,  42,  293, 
352,  363. 

Habits,  regularity,  49 ;  cleanliness, 
50 ;  sleep,  50 ;  clothing,  51 ;  cheer- 
fulness, 51 ;  law-abiding,  52,  128. 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  pupil  study,  14; 
Methods  of  Teaching  History,  310. 

Happy  class  control,  154. 

Harris,  W.  T.,  editor's  preface,  v, 
text-books,  75 ;  use  of,  80 ;  the  rod, 
141 ;  study  groups,  204 ;  reading, 
323.. 

Health,  condition  of,  38 ;  through 
law-abiding,  38 ;  conditions  hap- 
piness, 52  ;  culture  of,  356. 

Heart  power,  97, 134. 

Heating,  normal  temperature,  45. 

Helps,  school,  8,  57,  69,  75,  81. 

Heredity,  evolution  of,  16. 

High  educational  ideals,  Chap.  I. 

High  motives,  self-betterment,  108 ; 
altruistic,  108 ;  incentives  of  the 
true,  beautiful,  and  good,  109. 

High-school  education,  Supt.  Sol- 
dan,  288  ;  study  groups,  280. 

High  school,  improvement  of,  Chap. 
XXIV  ;  place,  214,  274 ;  function, 
214;  course  of  study,  215,  282; 


report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten, 
214;  prepares  for  life,  274;  pre- 
pares for  college,  275 ;  history  of, 
275;  building,  277;  programme, 
285 ;  faculty,  286. 

High-school  libraries,  85,  88. 

High-school  methods,  in  history, 
309  ;  in  psychology,  313 ;  in  liter- 
ature, 324. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  How  to  Study  and 
Teach  History,  310 ;  bad  methods 
in  literature,  327;  Teaching  the 
Language  Arts,  329. 

History,  207,  208,  306. 

History  of  the  country  school,  218. 

Home  exercises,  363. 

Home  hygiene,  parental  co-opera- 
tion, 39,  364. 

Howe,  E.  G.,  Systematic  Science 
Teaching,  332. 

How  to  train  pupils  to  study,  ix,  162, 
303. 

Hurtful  devices,  168,  359. 

Hurtful  motives,  105, 189. 

Hygiene,  school,  Chap.  IV ;  health, 
38;  neglect  of,  39;  home  hy- 
giene, 39  ;  play,  40  ;  gymnastics, 
42 ;  hourly  recess,  41 ;  lunch,  42; 
ventilation,  42;  heating,  44; 
lighting,  45 ;  cleanliness,  46 ; 
toilet,  47  ;  desk,  48  ;  habits,  49. 

Hygienic  conditions,  of  class  work, 
153 ;  of  physical  culture,  vi,  356. 

Hygienic  habits,  49,  356. 

Ideals,  in  advance  of  reals,  xii,  3 ; 
realization,  5, 10 ;  school  ideals,  6 ; 
higher  teacher  ideals,  7 ;  popular, 
ii ;  ideal  scheme,  295 ;  ideal  text- 
book, 75,  349. 

Incentives,  educative,  Chap.  IX; 
extraneous,  Chap.  XIX. 

Individual  method,  163. 

Individualism,  ix,  149,  254. 


INDEX. 


391 


Infant  study,  Jesus,  14 ;  real  child, 
15;  infancy,  15;  baby  friend,  16. 

Injudicious  punishments,  unjust, 
143;  degrading,  143;  fear,  142; 
corporal,  140,  144. 

Inorganic  nature,  x,  206,  331. 

Interest,  154, 185, 190. 

Intermediate  libraries,  84,  87. 

Intermediate  methods  in  history, 
308 ;  in  civics,  311 ;  in  mind  les- 
sons, 312;  in  language,  328. 

Intermediate  schools,  improvement, 
Chap.  XXIV;  ideal,  255;  boy- 
and-girl  stage  of  growth,  256; 
specialization,  257;  faculty,  260; 
ideal  buildings,  258 ;  course  of 
study,  263 ;  programme,  265  ; 
benefits  of  specialization,  xv,  270, 
355. 

Interrelation  of  studies,  269. 

Introductory  algebra,  352. 

Investigation,  164. 

Johonnot,  James,  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Teaching,  373. 

Journals,  school,  xv,  355,  365. 

Journal  of  the  N.  E.  A.,  xv. 

Judicious  punishments,  129,  133, 
137, 141. 

Kindergarten,  place,  242;  charac- 
teristics, 242 ;  kindergartners, 
243  ;  literature.  243  ;  training  the 
senses,  294. 

King,  E.  F.,  methods  in  geography, 
334. 

Laboratory  work,  26, 169,  216. 
Lagrange,  Fernand,  Physiology  of 

Bodily  Exercise,  357. 
Landon,  Joseph,  Class  Management, 

xxvi. 
Language-literature  methods,  Chap. 

XXVII;  group  of  studies,  320; 


special  programme,  320;  organic 
unity,  321 ;  methods  in  reading, 
322 ;  in  literature,  327 ;  in  com- 
position, 329 ;  programme,  320. 

Language  -  literature  studies,  suit- 
able helps,  71 ;  courses  in,  200 ; 
second  place,  209 ;  special  teacher, 
267  ;  four  lines,  320. 

Law-abiding,  self-control,  Chap. 
XIII ;  educate  to  work  quietly, 
119;  educate  to  regularity,  121; 
educate  to  promptitude,  123 ;  edu- 
cate to  proper  conduct,  125  ;  edu- 
cate to  right  conduct,  127  ;  meth- 
ods, Chap.  XXVI. 

Laws,  school  regulations,  112 ;  edu- 
cative, 113  ;  positive,  113 ;  few, 
113  ;  practical,  114  ;  popular,  114. 

Length  of  recitation,  213,  231. 

Lesson,  plan,  161 ;  oral,  180;  book, 
182. 

Libraries,  school,  Chap.  IX ;  classi- 
fications, 82;  management,  82; 
working,  83;  rural,  83;  primary, 
84 ;  intermediate,  84 ;  high-school, 
86  ;  department,  general,  88. 

Lighting,  perfect,  45  ;  windows,  46 ; 
injury  to  eyes,  vi,  46,  64. 

Literature,  x,  206,  327. 

Location,  school,  moral  environ- 
ments, 58;  commodious  grounds, 
58;  sanitary,  58;  aesthetic,  59; 
educative,  60. 

McLellan,  J.  A.,  Psychology  of 
Number,  teaching  arithmetic, 
346. 

McMurry's  General  Method,  373. 

Magill,  E.  H.,  co-ordination  and 
correlation  of  educational  institu- 
tions, 294. 

Management,  vitalizes,  9 ;  defini- 
tion, 12,  38,  57, 119. 

Manhood  study,  young  manhood, 


392  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


20 ;  student  study  circle,  20  ;  biog- 
raphy and  sociology,  21. 

Manual  training,  216,  371. 

Manuals,  in  conduct,  306 ;  in  lan- 
guage-literature, 322 ;  in  science, 
332 ;  in  mathematics,  343 ;  in  art, 
362, 366,  368,  370  ;  of  method,  373. 

Manu-mental  culture,  353,  367,  369. 

Mathematics  studies,  best  aids,  73  ; 
courses  in,  200:  form  and  num- 
ber, 210;  special  teacher,  268; 
methods  in,  Chap.  XXIX;  pro- 
gramme, 342. 

Men  as  well  as  women  teachers, 
271,  287. 

Methods,  in  rural  schools,  240;  in 
conduct  teaching,  301 ;  in  teach- 
ing history,  306;  in  teaching 
mind  lessons,  311 ;  in  teaching 
practical  religion,  314  ;  in  culture 
of  moral  virtues,  315;  in  lan- 
guage, Chap.  XXVII ;  in  science, 
Chap.  XXVIII ;  in  mathematics, 
Chap.  XXIX;  in  art,  Chap. 
XXX. 

Military  exercises,  360. 

Mind  lessons,  311. 

Moral  character,  94, 127,  273,  315. 

Morbid  fatigue,  359,  360. 

Motives,  educative,  Chap.  XI;  in- 
centives, 103 ;  teacher  determines, 
104;  help  or  hurt,  104;  school 
incentives,  105 ;  hurtful,  115 ; 
law,  106 ;  high,  108 ;  what  mo- 
tives, 111. 

Music,  365. 

Nature  studies,  332. 

Necessary  study  groups,  x,  205; 
inorganic  nature,  206 ;  organic, 
206;  literature,  206;  language, 
207 ;  history,  207. 

New  education,  8,  98, 159,  241. 

Normal  fatigue  and  rest,  358,  360. 


Objectionable  exercises,  359. 

Objective  work,  181,  351. 

Observation,  180,  339. 

Old  education,  96, 142, 150, 177. 

Oral  teaching,  oral  instruction,  76 ; 
oral  and  book  teaching,  79. 

Oral  work.  Chap.  XVHI ;  oral  and 
book  work,  178;  oral  teaching, 
180 ;  oral  methods,  305. 

Order,  fitness,  119. 

Organic  nature,  x,  206. 

Organic  unity  of  schools  and 
courses,  201 ;  part  and  whole, 
202  ;  stages  of  growth,  203  ;  or- 
ganic unity  of  faculties,  xiii,  266. 

Organization,  school  improvement, 
8 ;  rural  school,  221 ;  school  dis- 
trict, 221;  school  board,  222; 
principal,  222 ;  of  primary 
schools,  247 ;  of  intermediate, 
261 ;  of  high  school,  277. 

Our  ideal  manhood,  361. 

Outdoor  school  exercises,  40,  362. 

Parker,  Francis  W.,  value  of  child 
study,  14  ;  per  -  cent  marking, 
189;  How  to  Study  and  Teach 
Geography,  334  ;  concentration, 
xv. 

Per-cent  marking,  criminal,  Park- 
er, 189;  outrage,  Tompkins,  189; 
an  idol,  "White,  189;  low  motive, 
189;  extraneous  incentive,  192; 
vicious,  190;  monster  robber,  191; 
comparative  marking  vicious,  191. 

Physical  culture,  vii,  293,  353,  356, 
359,  361,  365. 

Physics,  methods  in,  268,  338. 

Physiology  of  exercise,  357. 

Plato,  243. 

Play,  vii,  40,  242. 

Pledges,  363. 

Practical  suggestions,  apparatus, 
74;  punishments,  144. 


INDEX. 


393 


Practical  work,  351,  353. 

Prang's  Form  Study  and  Drawing, 
368. 

Prepared  teachers,  7, 12,  26,  93, 176, 
336,  343. 

Preparation  for  teaching,  30, 35, 289, 
301,  322,  336,  343,  354. 

Primary,  ideal  schoolhouse,  244; 
faculty,  245;  organization,  247; 
course  of  study,  259 ;  programme, 
252 ;  methods,  243. 

Primary  libraries,  83,  87,  245. 

Primary  methods  in  history,  307; 
in  reading,  323  ;  in  mathematics, 
347 ;  in  geography,  333. 

Prince,  J.  F.,  German  methods,  79. 

Principal,  primary,  245;  interme- 
diate, 260 ;  high-school,  286. 

Privation,  121, 123,  128, 136. 

Professional  schools,  departments 
of  education,  33  ;  chairs  of  peda- 
gogy, 34;  normal  schools,  34; 
summer  normals,  35 ;  circles,  xv. 

Profession  of  teaching,  advance- 
ment, 27,  36. 

Programme  clock,  65, 173. 

Programme,  for  ungraded  schools, 
233,  236;  primary,  252;  interme- 
diate, 265 ;  high-school,  285. 

Programme,  in  conduct,  302 ;  in  lan- 
guage-literature, 320;  in  science, 
331 ;  in  mathematics,  341 ;  in  art, 
354. 

Progress,  through  ideals,  3,  161; 
pupil  alertness,  ix. 

Promotion,  157, 194,  213,  248,  261. 

Promptitude,  importance,  115 ;  law, 
123 ;  example,  123 ;  incentives, 
124. 

Proper  conduct,  importance,  115; 
law,  125  ;  example,  125;  motives, 
125;  training,  125;  remedies,  126. 

Provinces  of  study,  XII,  205,  331. 

Psychology,  13,  23,  96,  311,  313. 


Punishment,  educative,  viii,  Chap. 
XI V  ;  moral  necessity,  128 ;  reme- 
dial, 129;  use  of  guttering,  130; 
principles  determining,  130 ;  edu- 
cative, 131  ;  reformatory,  131  ; 
natural,  132  ;  just,  132 ;  helpful, 
133  ;  disapproval,  133 ;  reproof, 
134 ;  privation,  136  ;  suspension, 
137  ;  corporal,  140 ;  fear,  142 ;  de- 
grading, 143;  unjust,  144. 

Pupil  betterment  central  idea,  4; 
through  educative  management, 
14. 

Pupil  study,  greatest  thing,  6 ;  Chap. 
II ;  neglect  of,  13 ;  value  to  teach- 
er, 14 ;  physical  economy,  21 ; 
mental  economy,  23 ;  self-knowl- 
edge, 23 ;  methods  of,  24 ;  Barnes, 
Parker,  Hall,  24 ;  insight,  96. 

Quiet  work,  important,  114 ;  condi- 
tions of,  119;  example,  120;  altru- 
istic incentives,  120 ;  training,  120. 

Recesses,  vii. 

Recitation,  class  work,  158 ;  charac- 
teristics, 159  ;  methods,  162 ;  de- 
vices, 168;  tactics,  172;  periods, 
213 ;  time,  213 ;  management,  ix. 

Recitation  periods,  elementary 
schools,  213 ;  rural  schools,  231 ; 
primary  schools,  244. 

Record  and  reports,  educative,  191 ; 
attendance,  conduct,  class  stand- 
ing, 192;  reports,  193. 

Recreation,  40,  362. 

Reform,  Bacon's  rule,  6;  peren- 
nial, 6. 

Regularity,  importance,  122;  incen- 
tives, 122 ;  enforcement,  123. 

Regulations,  educative,  Chap.  XII ; 
guiding  principles,  113 ;  school 
code,  114;  adoption  of,  116;  en- 
forcement of,  Chap.  XIII. 


394  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  SCHOOL  METHODS. 


Religion,  methods  of  teaching,  314. 

Keport  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen, 
correlation,  211. 

Keport  of  the  Committee  of  Ten, 
secondary  schools,  214. 

Keproof,  134. 

Rest,  358,  362. 

Review,  160. 

Right  conduct,  importance,  115; 
law,  127;  example,  127;  moral 
teaching,  127 ;  training,  128 ;  pun- 
ishment, 128. 

Rowing,  365. 

Rural  libraries,  83,  86,  224. 

Rural  schools,  efficient,  Chap.  XXI ; 
story  of,  218 ;  sui  generis,  219 ; 
ungraded,  219  ;  school  grounds, 
220;  schoolhouse,  220;  organiza- 
tion, 221';  library,  224;  advan- 
tages. 226  ;  disadvantages,  226  ; 
course  of  study,  230 ;  programme, 
233 ;  faculty,  237 ;  methods,  240. 

Salaries,  generous,  28. 

School  arts,  353. 

School  district,  221. 

School  essentials  and  school  helps 
(diagrams),  2. 

School  evolution,  5,  254. 

School  government,  Part  III ;  prac- 
tical, vii,  viii ;  rational,  xi. 

School  grounds,  60,  220. 

Schoolhouse,  central,  60 ;  evolution 
of,  61;  ideal,  62,  220;  primary, 
244  ;  intermediate,  255  ;  high- 
school,  277. 

School  hygiene,  Chap.  IV ;  in  class 
control,  154;  in  school  work,  8; 
in  school  government,  119. 

School  organism,  a  unit,  4 ;  organic 
growth,  4 ;  evolution,  5 ;  ideal,  6. 

School  tactics,  172. 

Science  studies,  teaching,  Chap. 
XXVIil;  science  apparatus,  72; 


courses  in,  200;  inorganic  and 
organic  Nature,  209 ;  special 
teacher,  268 ;  lines  of  work,  331 ; 
programme,  332 ;  methods  in,  330. 

Scott,  C.  B.,  Nature  Study,  332. 

Secondary  schools,  place,  214 ; 
course  of  study,  215,  282;  report 
of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  214. 

Shaw,E.  R.,  Physics  by  Experiment, 
33d. 

Signals,  65, 172, 173. 

Sheldon,  E.  A.,  ceaseless  progress,33. 

Size,  of  classes,  152. 

Special  conduct  lessons,  302. 

Special  programme  for  conduct, 
302  ;  for  language-literature,  320 ; 
for  science,  332  ;  for  mathematics, 
342 ;  for  art,  352. 

Special  teacher,  265. 

Specialization,  xiv,  253,  257 ;  Chap. 
XXIII,  293. 

Specialization,  cardinal,  28. 

Spontaneity,  in  recitation,  159;  in 
gymnastics,  362. 

Study  groups  of  the  rural  schools, 
229  ;  primary  schools,  249 ;  inter- 
mediate, 262;  high  school,  280; 
college,  200. 

Study  hints,  educational  conditions; 
53 ;  school  facilities,  89  ;  school 
government,  145;  class  manage- 
ment, 196 ;  school  and  college 
correlation,  295 ;  methods  of 
teaching,  370. 

Suspension,  137, 141. 

System,  99 ;  element,  100. 

Systematic  Science  Teaching,  E.  G. 
Howe,  332. 

Systematical  Physical  Culture,  42, 
293,  361. 

Tact,  governing  element,  101. 
Tactics,   school    and    class,  Chap. 
XVII. 


INDEX. 


395 


Tnrbell,  II.  S.,  primary  geography, 
334. 

Tardiness,  115, 124. 

Teacher  circles,  xv,  16, 17, 18, 19,  20. 

Teacher  betterment  through  pro- 
fessional preparation,  Chap.  III. 

Teacher,  vital  factor,  6 ;  the  ideal, 
12;  improvement  of,  Chap.  Ill; 
gifted,  30 ;  culture,  31 ;  prepared, 
31 ;  devoted,  32 ;  progressive,  33. 

Teaching,  a  profession,  27 ;  perma- 
nency, 27 ;  salaries,  28 ;  speciali- 
zation, 28 ;  career,  29  ;  learned 
profession,  30 ;  defined,  201 ;  art 
of,  353 ;  skill,  368. 

Teaching  mathematics,  343. 

Teaching  power,  96,  103,  154,  180, 
185. 

Teaching  question,  164. 

Testing  the  senses,  22. 

Text- book,  ideal,  Chap.  VIII;  best 
help,  75 ;  use,  75 ;  characteristics, 
76;  book  teaching,  76,  79;  free, 
80 ;  arithmetic,  369. 

Thompson,  school  management, 
xiv;  Tompkins,  Arnold,  189. 

Topics  for  discussion,  educational 
conditions,  53 ;  school  facilities, 
89 ;  school  government,  145 ;  class 
management,  196;  school  and 
college  correlation,  295  ;  methods 
of  teaching,  370. 

Training,  120, 124, 125, 128,  357. 


Ungraded  schools,  Chap.  XXI ;  un- 
economical, 338. 

Unity,  method,  163. 

University,  characteristics,  292  ;  un- 
dergraduates, 292 ;  course  system, 
293 ;  early  specialization,  293. 

Unrelated  knowledge,  280. 

Ventilation,  injudicious,  vii;  per- 
fect, 42  ;  neglect  of,  43 ;  pure  air, 
43. 

Vicarious  exercise,  359. 

Vocal  music,  365. 

Walking,  364. 

White,  E.  E.,  per-cent  marking,  1 89  ; 
three-group  programme,  236 ; 
school  management,  xv ;  manual 
of  primary  arithmetic,  347. 

Will  power,  98. 

Windows  of  the  soul,  x. 

Working,  304. 

Working  libraries,  rural,  83,  225; 
primary,  84 ;  intermediate,  84 ; 
high-school,  85. 

Writing,  370. 

Written  recitations  in  lieu  of  ex- 
aminations, 185 ;  educative, 
185. 

Youth,  276. 

Youth  study,  what  is  the  youth,  19 ; 
literature,  25. 


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edition  of  his  work  comes  to  us  beautifully  illustrated  by  Clifton  Johnson." — New  York 
Times. 

"  White's  '  Selborne '  has  been  reprinted  many  times,  in  many  forms,  but  never  be- 
fore, so  far  as  we  can  remember,  in  so  creditable  a  form  as  it  assumes  in  these  two 
volumes,  nor  with  drawings  comparable  to  those  which  Mr.  Clifton  Johnson  has  made 
for  them." — New  York  Mail  and  Express. 

"  We  are  loath  to  put  down  the  two  handsome  volumes  in  which  the  source  of  such 
a  gift  as  this  has  been  republished.  The  type  is  so  clear,  the  paper  is  so  pleasant  to 
the  touch,  the  weight  of  each  volume  is  so  nicely  adapted  to  the  hand,  and  one  turns 
page  after  page  with  exactly  that  quiet  sense  of  ever  new  and  ever  old  endeared  de- 
light which  comes  through  a  window  looking  on  the  English  countryside— the  rooks 
cawing  in  a  neighboring  copse,  the  little  village  nestling  sleepily  amid  the  trees,  trees 
so  green  that  sometimes  they  seem  to  hover  on  the  edge  of  black,  and  then  again  so 
green  that  they  seem  vivid  with  the  flaunting  bravery  of  spring." — New  York 
Tribune. 

"Not  only  for  the  significance  they  lend  to  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  English 
literature,  but  as  a  revelation  of  English  rural  life  and  scenes,  are  these  pictures  de- 
lightfully welcome.  The  edition  is  in  every  way  creditable  to  the  publishers." — 
Boston  Beacon. 

"  Rural  England  has  many  attractions  for  the  lover  of  Nature,  and  no  work,  per- 
haps, has  done  its  charms  greater  justice  than  Gilbert  White's  '  Natural  History  of 
Selborne.'  " — Boston  Journal. 

"This  charming  edition  leaves  really  nothing  to  be  desired." — Westminster 
Gazette. 

"  This  edition  is  beautifully  illustrated  and  bound,  and  deserves  to  be  welcomed  by 
all  naturalists  and  Nature  lovers." — London  Daily  Chronicle. 

"  Handsome  and  desirable  in  every  respect.  .  .  .  Welcome  to  old  and  young."— 
New  York  Herald. 

"  The  charm  of  White's  '  Selborne '  is  not  definable.  But  there  is  no  other  book  of 
the  past  generations  that  will  ever  take  the  place  with  the  field  naturalists. "—Balti- 
more Sun. 


New  York :    D.  APPLETON   &   CO.,  72  Fifth  Avenue. 


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